Volume 1
Preface xvii
List of Contributors xix
1 Fundamentals and Transition-state Models. Aldol Additions
of Group 1 and 2 Enolates 1
Manfred Braun
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Acid or Base-mediated ‘‘Traditional’’ Aldol Reaction 2
1.3 The Aldol Addition of Preformed Enolates – Stereoselectivity and Transition-state Models 9
1.4 Stereoselective Aldol Addition of Lithium, Magnesium and Sodium Enolates 25
1.4.1 Addition of Chiral Enolates to Achiral Carbonyl Compounds 26
1.4.1.1 a-Substituted Enolates 26
1.4.1.2 a-Unsubstituted Enolates 32
1.4.2 Addition of Achiral Enolates to Chiral Carbonyl Compounds 41
1.4.3 Addition of Chiral Enolates to Chiral Carbonyl Compounds 49
1.4.4 Addition of Achiral Enolates to Achiral Carbonyl Compounds in the Presence of Chiral Additives and Catalysts 51
1.5 Conclusion 52
References 53
2 The Development of Titanium Enolate-based Aldol Reactions
63
Arun K. Ghosh, M. Shevlin
2.1 Introduction 63
2.2 Additions of Enolates to Ketones 65
2.3 Addition of Enolates Without α-Substituents to Aldehydes 66
2.3.1 Stereoselective Acetate Aldol Reactions Using Chiral Auxiliaries 67
2.3.2 Stereoselective Acetate Aldol Reactions Involving Chiral Titanium Ligands 69
2.3.3 Alternative Approaches to Acetate Aldol Adducts 70
2.4 Addition of Enolates with α-Substituents to Aldehydes 72
2.4.1 Syn Diastereoselectivity 74
2.4.1.1 Synthesis of syn Aldols in Racemic Form 75
2.4.1.1.1 Reactions of Ketones 75
2.4.1.1.2 Reactions of Esters and Thiol Esters 77
2.4.1.1.3 Aldol Reactions of Aldehyde Hydrazones 78
2.4.1.2 Synthesis of Optically Active syn Aldols Using Chiral Auxiliaries 80
2.4.1.2.1 Amino Acid-derived Oxazolidinone and Related Auxiliaries 80
2.4.1.2.2 Camphor-derived Chiral Auxiliaries 84
2.4.1.2.3 Aminoindanol and Amino Acid-derived Chiral Auxiliaries 87
2.4.1.2.4 Other Chiral Auxiliaries 90
2.4.1.3 Synthesis of Optically Active syn Aldols Using Chiral Titanium Ligands 92
2.4.1.4 Synthesis of Optically Active syn Aldols with Chiral Enolates 95
2.4.2 Anti Diastereoselectivity 98
2.4.2.1 Synthesis of anti Aldols in Racemic Form 98
2.4.2.2 Synthesis of Optically Active anti Aldols by Use of Chiral Auxiliaries 99
2.4.2.2.1 Aminoindanol and Related Chiral Auxiliaries 99
2.4.2.2.2 Oxazolidinethione and Oxazolidineselone Chiral Auxiliaries 103
2.4.2.3 Synthesis of Optically Active anti Aldols by Use of Chiral Titanium Ligands 104
2.5 Natural Product Synthesis via Titanium Enolate Aldol Reactions 105
2.5.1 Lactone Natural Products 105
2.5.1.1 Tetrahydrolipstatin 106
2.5.1.2 Myxopyronins A and B 106
2.5.1.3 Callystatin A 107
2.5.1.4 Ai-77-B 108
2.5.2 Macrolide Natural Products 110
2.5.2.1 Epothilone 490 110
2.5.2.2 Cryptophycin B 110
2.5.2.3 Amphidinolide T1 111
2.5.2.4 Rapamycin 112
2.5.2.5 Spongistatins 1 and 2 113
2.5.3 Miscellaneous Natural Products 114
2.5.3.1 Tautomycin 114
2.5.3.2 Crocacin C 115
2.5.3.3 Stigmatellin A 116
2.5.3.4 Denticulatin B 117
2.5.3.5 Membrenone C 119
2.6 Typical Experimental Procedures for Generation of Titanium Enolates 120
2.6.1 Experimental Procedures 120
2.6.2 Alternative Approaches to Titanium Enolate Generation 121
2.7 Conclusion 121
References 122
3 Boron and Silicon Enolates in Crossed Aldol Reaction
127
Teruaki Mukaiyama and Jun-ichi Matsuo
3.1 Introduction 127
3.2 Crossed Aldol Reactions Using Boron Enolates 127
3.2.1 Discovery of Aldol Reaction Mediated by Boron Enolates 127
3.2.2 New Method for Direct Generation of Boron Enolates 129
3.2.3 Regioselectivity on Generation of Boron Enolates 130
3.2.4 Stereoselective Formation of (E) or (Z) Boron Enolates 131
3.2.5 syn-Selective Asymmetric Boron Aldol Reactions 134
3.2.6 anti-Selective Asymmetric Aldol Reaction 135
3.3 Crossed Aldol Reactions Using Silicon Enolates 137
3.3.1 Discovery of Silicon Enolate-mediated Crossed Aldol Reactions 137
3.3.2 Lewis Acid-catalyzed Aldol Reactions of Silicon Enolates 143
3.3.3 Non-catalyzed Aldol Reactions of Silicon Enolates 147
3.3.4 Lewis Base-catalyzed Aldol Reactions of Trimethylsilyl Enolates 148
3.3.5 Diastereoselective Synthesis of Polyoxygenated Compounds 149
3.3.6 Asymmetric Aldol Reactions Using Chiral Tin(II) Lewis Acid Catalysts 150
3.3.6.1 Stoichiometric Enantioselective Aldol Reaction 151
3.3.6.2 Catalytic Enantioselective Aldol Reaction 154
References 155
4 Amine-catalyzed Aldol Reactions 161
Benjamin
List
4.1 Introduction 161
4.2 Aminocatalysis of the Aldol Reaction 162
4.2.1 Intermolecular Aldolizations 163
4.2.1.1 Aldehyde Donors 164
4.2.1.2 Ketone Donors 166
4.2.2 Intramolecular Aldolizations 167
4.2.2.1 Enolexo Aldolizations 167
4.2.2.2 Enolendo Aldolizations 171
4.3 Asymmetric Aminocatalysis of the Aldol Reaction 173
4.3.1 Intramolecular Aldolizations 173
4.3.1.1 Enolendo Aldolizations 173
4.3.1.2 Enolexo Aldolizations 177
4.3.2 Intermolecular Aldolizations 179
4.3.2.1 Ketone Donors 179
4.3.2.2 Aldehyde Donors 193
References 196
5 Enzyme-catalyzed Aldol Additions 201
Wolf-Dieter
Fessner
5.1 Introduction 201
5.2 General Aspects 202
5.2.1 Classification of Lyases 202
5.2.2 Enzyme Structure and Mechanism 204
5.2.3 Practical Considerations 207
5.3 Pyruvate Aldolases 208
5.3.1 N-Acetylneuraminic Acid Aldolase 208
5.3.2 KDO Aldolase 216
5.3.3 DAHP Synthase 217
5.3.4 KDPG Aldolase and Related Enzymes 218
5.4 Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate Aldolases 221
5.4.1 FruA 222
5.4.2 TagA 224
5.4.3 RhuA and FucA 224
5.4.4 DHAP Synthesis 227
5.4.5 Applications 230
5.4.6 Aldol Transfer Enzymes 246
5.5 Transketolase and Related Enzymes 247
5.6 2-Deoxy-D-ribose 5-Phosphate Aldolase 250
5.7 Glycine Aldolases 254
5.8 Recent Developments 257
5.9 Summary and Conclusion 258
References 260
6 Antibody-catalyzed Aldol Reactions 273
Fujie Tanaka
and Carlos F. Barbas, III
6.1 Introduction 273
6.2 Generation of Aldolase Antibodies 273
6.2.1 Antibody as Catalyst Scaffold 273
6.2.2 Generation of Aldolase Antibodies that Operate via an Enamine Mechanism 274
6.2.2.1 Reactive Immunization with the Simple Diketone Derivative 275
6.2.2.2 Combining Reactive Immunization with Transition-state Analogs 277
6.2.2.3 Reactive Immunization with other Diketones 279
6.3 Aldolase Antibody-catalyzed Aldol and Retro-aldol Reactions 279
6.3.1 Antibody 38C2-catalyzed Aldol Reactions 280
6.3.2 Antibody 38C2-Catalyzed Retro-aldol Reactions and their Application to Kinetic Resolution 283
6.3.3 Aldol and Retro-aldol Reactions Catalyzed by Antibodies 93F3 and 84G3 285
6.3.4 Preparative-scale Kinetic Resolution Using Aldolase Antibodies in a Biphasic Aqueous–Organic Solvent System 288
6.3.5 Aldolase Antibody-catalyzed Reactions in Natural Product Synthesis 290
6.3.6 Retro-aldol Reactions in Human Therapy: Prodrug Activation by Aldolase Antibody 291
6.4 Aldolase Antibodies for Reactions Related to an Enamine Mechanism and the Nucleophilic Lysine ε-Amino Group 293
6.5 Concise Catalytic Assays for Aldolase Antibody-catalyzed Reactions 297
6.6 Structures of Aldolase Antibodies and Reaction Mechanism of Nucleophilic Lysine ε-Amino Group 298
6.7 Evolution of Aldolase Antibodies In Vitro 302
6.8 Cofactor-mediated Antibody-catalyzed Aldol and/or Retro-aldol Reactions 305
6.9 Summary and Conclusion 305
6.10 Experimental Procedures 306
Acknowledgments 307
References 307
7 The Aldol Reaction in Natural Product Synthesis: The
Epothilone Story 311
Dieter Schinzer
7.1 History of Epothilones: Biological Source, Isolation, and Structural Elucidation 311
7.2 History of Epothilones: The Total Synthesis Race 311
7.2.1 Different Strategies with Aldol Reactions: The Danishefsky Synthesis of Epothilone A Relying on Intramolecular Aldol Reaction 312
7.2.2 Different Strategies with Aldol Reactions: The Nicolaou Synthesis of Epothilone A Using an Unselective Aldol Reaction 313
7.2.3 Different Strategies with Aldol Reactions: The Schinzer Synthesis of Epothilone A with Complete Stereocontrol in the Aldol Reaction 314
7.3 Model Study via Chelation Control in the Aldol Reaction by Kalesse 319
7.3.1 Different Aldol Strategies: Mulzer’s Total Syntheses of Epothilones B and D 320
7.4 Long-range Structural Effects on the Stereochemistry of Aldol Reactions 322
7.5 Summary and Conclusion 326
References 326
Index 329
Volume 2
Preface xvii
List of Contributors xix
1 Silver, Gold, and Palladium Lewis Acids 1
Akira
Yanagisawa
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Mukaiyama Aldol Reaction and Related Reactions 1
1.3 Asymmetric Aldol Reactions of a-Isocyanocarboxylates 8
1.4 Summary and Conclusions 15
1.5 Experimental Procedures 18
References 21
2 Boron and Silicon Lewis Acids for Mukaiyama Aldol Reactions
25
Kazuaki Ishihara and Hisashi Yamamoto
2.1 Achiral Boron Lewis Acids 25
2.1.1 Introduction 25
2.1.2 BF3 ⋅ Et2O 26
2.1.3 B(C6F5)3 29
2.1.4 Ar2BOH 30
2.2 Chiral Boron Lewis Acids 33
2.2.1 Introduction 33
2.2.2 Chiral Boron Lewis Acids as Stoichiometric Reagents 33
2.2.3 Chiral Boron Lewis Acids as Catalytic Reagents 40
2.3 Silicon Lewis Acids 53
2.3.1 Introduction 53
2.3.2 Lewis Acidity of Silicon Derivatives 54
2.3.3 Silicon Lewis Acids as Catalytic Reagents 55
2.3.4 Activation of Silicon Lewis Acids by Combination with Other Lewis Acids 60
References 65
3 Copper Lewis Acids 69
Jeffrey S. Johnson and David
A. Nicewicz
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Early Examples 69
3.3 Mukaiyama Aldol Reactions with Cu(II) Complexes 70
3.3.1 Enolsilane Additions to (Benzyloxy)acetaldehyde 70
3.3.1.1 Scope and Application 70
3.3.1.2 Mechanism and Stereochemistry 75
3.3.2 Enolsilane Additions to α-Keto Esters 80
3.3.2.1 Scope and Application 80
3.3.2.2 Mechanism and Stereochemistry 85
3.3.3 Enolsilane Additions to Unfunctionalized Aldehydes 88
3.4 Additions Involving In-Situ Enolate Formation 90
3.4.1 Pyruvate Ester Dimerization 90
3.4.2 Addition of Nitromethane to α-Keto Esters 91
3.4.3 Malonic Acid Half Thioester Additions to Aldehydes 94
3.4.4 Dienolate Additions to Aldehydes 96
3.4.4.1 Scope and Application 96
3.4.4.2 Mechanistic Considerations 97
3.4.5 Enantioselective Cu(II) Enolate-Catalyzed Vinylogous Aldol Reactions 99
3.5 Conclusions 101
References 102
4 Tin-promoted Aldol Reactions and their Application to Total
Syntheses of Natural Products 105
Isamu Shiina
4.1 Introduction 105
4.2 Tin-promoted Intermolecular Aldol Reactions 105
4.2.1 Achiral Aldol Reactions 105
4.2.2 The Reaction of Silyl Enolates with Aldehydes or Ketones 108
4.2.3 The Reaction of Silyl Enolates with Acetals 117
4.2.4 Reaction of Dienol Silyl Ethers 120
4.3 Tin-promoted Intramolecular Aldol Reactions 121
4.3.1 The Intramolecular Aldol Reaction of Silyl Enolates 121
4.3.2 Reaction of Dienol Silyl Ethers or γ-Silyl-α,β-enones 123
4.4 Chiral Diamine–Sn(II) Complex-promoted Aldol Reactions 124
4.4.1 Asymmetric Aldol and Related Reactions of Sn(II) Enolates 125
4.4.2 Chiral Diamine–Sn(II) Complex-promoted Aldol Reactions 128
4.4.3 Asymmetric Aldol Reaction of Silyl Enolates 129
4.4.4 Catalytic Asymmetric Aldol Reaction 131
4.4.5 Asymmetric Synthesis of syn- and anti-1,2-Diol Groups 135
4.4.6 Enantioselective Synthesis of Both Enantiomers of Aldols Using Similar Diamines Derived from L-Proline 139
4.5 Asymmetric Total Syntheses of Complex Molecules Using Chiral Diamine–Sn(II) Catalysts 140
4.5.1 Monosaccharides 140
4.5.2 Leinamycin and a Part of Rapamycin 142
4.5.3 Sphingosine, Sphingofungins, and Khafrefungin 145
4.5.4 Febrifugine and Isofebrifugine 147
4.5.5 Altohyrtin C (Spongistatin 2) and Phorboxazole B 148
4.5.6 Paclitaxel (Taxol) 149
4.5.7 Cephalosporolide d 153
4.5.8 Buergerinin F 153
4.5.9 Octalactins A and B 154
4.5.10 Oudemansin-antibiotic Analog 155
4.6 Conclusions 157
4.7 Experimental 158
References 159
5 Zirconium Alkoxides as Lewis Acids 167
Yasuhiro
Yamashita and Shū Kobayashi
5.1 Introduction 167
5.2 The Asymmetric Mukaiyama Aldol Reaction 169
5.3 Asymmetric Hetero Diels–Alder Reaction 175
5.4 Reaction Mechanism 180
5.5 Structure of the Chiral Zirconium Catalyst 184
5.6 Air-stable and Storable Chiral Zirconium Catalyst 187
5.7 Conclusion 190
5.8 Experimental 191
References 192
6 Direct Catalytic Asymmetric Aldol Reaction Using Chiral
Metal Complexes 197
Masakatsu Shibasaki, Shigeki Matsunaga,
and Naoya Kumagai
6.1 Introduction 197
6.2 Direct Aldol Reactions with Methyl Ketones 198
6.3 Direct Aldol Reactions with Methylene Ketones 208
6.4 Direct Aldol Reaction with α-Hydroxyketones 210
6.5 Direct Aldol Reaction with Glycine Schiff Bases 219
6.6 Other Examples 221
6.7 Conclusion 224
6.8 Experimental Section 225
References and Notes 226
7 Catalytic Enantioselective Aldol Additions with Chiral
Lewis Bases 229
Scott E. Denmark and Shinji Fujimori
7.1 Introduction 229
7.1.1 Enantioselective Aldol Additions 229
7.1.1.1 Background 230
7.1.2 Lewis Base Catalysis 233
7.1.3 Organization of this Chapter 235
7.2 Preparation of Enoxytrichlorosilanes 236
7.2.1 General Considerations 238
7.2.2 Preparation of Ketone-derived Trichlorosilyl Enolates 240
7.2.3 Preparation of Aldehyde-derived Trichlorosilyl Enolates 246
7.2.4 Preparation of Trichlorosilyl Ketene Acetals 248
7.3 Preparation of Chiral Lewis Bases 249
7.3.1 Preparation of Chiral Phosphoramides 250
7.3.2 Synthesis of Chiral bis-N-Oxides 251
7.4 Enantioselective Aldol Addition of Achiral Enoxytrichlorosilanes 253
7.4.1 Aldol Additions of Achiral Methyl Ketone-derived Enolates 254
7.4.2 Aldol Additions of Cyclic Trichlorosilyl Enolates 263
7.4.3 Addition of Acyclic Ethyl Ketone-derived Enolates 267
7.5 Diastereoselective Additions of Chiral Enoxytrichlorosilanes 272
7.5.1 Aldol Addition of Lactate-derived Enoxytrichlorosilanes 273
7.5.1.1 Methyl Ketone-derived Enolates 273
7.5.1.2 Ethyl Ketone-derived Enolates 277
7.5.2 Aldol Addition of β-Hydroxy-α-Methyl Ketone-derived Enoxytrichlorosilanes 280
7.5.2.1 Methyl Ketone-derived Enolates 280
7.5.2.2 Ethyl Ketone-derived Enolates 282
7.5.3 Addition of Enoxytrichlorosilanes with a β-Stereogenic Center 283
7.6 Aldol Additions of Aldehyde-derived Enoxytrichlorosilanes 288
7.7 Aldol Addition of Trichlorosilyl Ketene Acetal to Aldehydes and Ketones 294
7.8 Lewis Base Activation of Lewis Acids – Aldol Additions of Silyl Enol Ethers to Aldehydes 298
7.9 Toward a Unified Mechanistic Scheme 305
7.9.1 Cationic Silicon Species and the Dual-pathway Hypothesis 306
7.9.2 Unified Mechanistic Scheme 310
7.9.3 Structural Insights and Modifications 312
7.10 Conclusions and Outlook 315
7.11 Representative Procedures 316
7.11.1 Preparation of Enoxytrichlorosilanes 316
7.11.2 Aldol Addition of Ketone-derived Enoxytrichlorosilane 317
References 319
8 The Aldol–Tishchenko Reaction 327
R. Mahrwald
8.1 Introduction 327
8.2 The Aldol–Tishchenko Reaction 327
8.2.1 The Aldol–Tishchenko Reaction with Enolizable Aldehydes 327
8.2.2 The Aldol–Tishchenko Reaction with Ketones and Aldehydes 329
8.2.3 The Evans–Tishchenko Reduction 334
8.2.4 Related Reactions 339
8.3 Representative Procedures 341
References 342
Index 345
Born in 1950, Rainer Mahrwald studied chemistry at MLU Halle and subsequently joined the "Manfred von Ardenne" Research Institute in Dresden, where he led the synthetics group. He gained his doctorate under G. Wagner in Leipzig in 1979, and went on to the Institute of Organic Chemistry at the Academy of Science in Berlin, where he remained until 1990. Following a stay at the Philipps-University in Marburg, Dr. Mahrwald qualified as a lecturer at the Humboldt University Berlin, where he is now a private lecturer.
"This two-volume work is very rewarding reading, and can be
strongly recommended for everyone who is seriously engaged in using
modern aldol reactions - especially for diastereo- and
enantioselectivity - or intends to enter the field. The editor and
authors have achieved a well-balanced mixture of fundamentals and
detailed description of methods and applications."
Angewandte Chemie IE
"This set will be a valuable addition to the library of researchers
in the field and for graduate-level students."
CHOICE
"This two-volume set provides much needed comprehensive coverage of
modern aldol reactions, an area of tremendous current activity,
interest, and importance."
Journal of the American Chemical Society
"I recommend it highly to all students and research workers
interestes in synthetic organic chemistry, and conclude that it is
a "must-have" publication for all libraries serving a synthetic
research community."
Applied Organometallic Chemistry
"...a most useful addition to any collection serving researchers
and students in synthetic organic chemistry, or pharmacologists and
others ..."
E-STREAMS
"Ohne Frage haben die Autoren ein Standardwerk etabliert, welches
für Chemiker, die an der Aldolreaktion interessiert sind,
unverzichtbar ist."
Nachrichten aus der Chemie
"Insgesamt kann dieses sehr lesenswerte zweibändige Werk jedem
empfohlen werden, der sich eingehend mit den modernen, speziell den
diastereo- und enantioselektiven Verfahren der Aldolreaktion
beschäftigt oder beschäftigen will. Dem Herausgeber und den Autoren
ist eine gut ausgewogene Mischung aus grundlegenden Konzepten und
den vielen daraus resultierenden, detailliert beschriebenen
Verfahren und Anwendungen gelungen."
Angewandte Chemie
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