Table of Contents

Acknowledgments x

Preface xi

About the Companion Website xiv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics 1

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 The Classical Electron 2

1.3 Two-Slit Electron Experiment 4

1.4 The Photoelectric Effect 8

1.5 Wave-Packets and Uncertainty 11

1.6 The Wavefunction 13

1.7 The Schrödinger Equation 15

1.8 The Electron in a One-Dimensional Well 19

1.9 The Hydrogen Atom 25

1.10 Electron Transmission and Reflection at Potential Energy Step 30

1.11 Spin 32

1.12 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 35

1.13 Operators and the Postulates of Quantum Mechanics 36

1.14 Expectation Values and Hermitian Operators 38

1.15 Summary 40

Problems 42

Note 45

Suggestions for Further Reading 45

Chapter 2 Semiconductor Physics 46

2.1 Introduction 47

2.2 The Band Theory of Solids 48

2.3 Bloch Functions 49

2.4 The Kronig–Penney Model 52

2.5 The Bragg Model 57

2.6 Effective Mass in Three Dimensions 59

2.7 Number of States in a Band 61

2.8 Band Filling 63

2.9 Fermi Energy and Holes 65

2.10 Carrier Concentration 66

2.11 Semiconductor Materials 78

2.12 Semiconductor Band Diagrams 80

2.13 Direct Gap and Indirect Gap Semiconductors 82

2.14 Extrinsic Semiconductors 86

2.15 Carrier Transport in Semiconductors 91

2.16 Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Dynamics 95

2.17 Carrier Diffusion and the Einstein Relation 98

2.18 Quasi-Fermi Energies 101

2.19 The Diffusion Equation 104

2.20 Traps and Carrier Lifetimes 107

2.21 Alloy Semiconductors 111

2.23 Summary 114

Problems 116

Suggestions for Further Reading 122

Chapter 3 The p-n Junction Diode 123

3.1 Introduction 124

3.2 Diode Current 125

3.3 Contact Potential 130

3.4 The Depletion Approximation 132

3.5 The Diode Equation 141

3.6 Reverse Breakdown and the Zener Diode 153

3.7 Tunnel Diodes 156

3.8 Generation/Recombination Currents 158

3.9 Metal-Semiconductor Junctions 161

3.10 Heterojunctions 172

3.11 Alternating Current (AC) and Transient Behavior 173

3.12 Summary 176

Problems 177

Note 181

Suggestions for Further Reading 181

Chapter 4 Photon Emission and Absorption 182

4.1 Introduction to Luminescence and Absorption 183

4.2 Physics of Light Emission 184

4.3 Simple Harmonic Radiator 187

4.4 Quantum Description 188

4.5 The Exciton 192

4.6 Two-Electron Atoms and the Exchange Interaction 195

4.7 Molecular Excitons 202

4.8 Band-to-Band Transitions 205

4.9 Photometric Units 210

4.10 Summary 214

Problems 215

Note 219

Suggestions for Further Reading 219

Chapter 5 Semiconductor Devices Based on the p-n Junction 220

5.1 Introduction 221

5.2 The p-n Junction Solar Cell 222

5.3 Light Absorption 224

5.4 Solar Radiation 226

5.5 Solar Cell Design and Analysis 227

5.6 Solar Cell Efficiency Limits and Tandem Cells 234

5.7 The Light Emitting Diode 236

5.8 Emission Spectrum 239

5.9 Non-Radiative Recombination 240

5.10 Optical Outcoupling 241

5.11 GaAs LEDs 244

5.12 GaP:N LEDs 245

5.13 Double Heterojunction Al X Ga 1−x as Leds 246

5.14 AlGaInP LEDs 251

5.15 Ga 1−x in X N Leds 253

5.16 Bipolar Junction Transistor 257

5.17 Junction Field Effect Transistor 266

5.18 BJT and JFET Symbols and Applications 270

5.19 Summary 271

Problems 274

Further Reading 282

Chapter 6 The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 283

6.1 Introduction to the MOSFET 284

6.2 MOSFET Physics 286

6.3 MOS Capacitor Analysis 288

6.4 Accumulation Layer and Inversion Layer Thicknesses 297

6.5 Capacitance of MOS Capacitor 301

6.6 Work Functions, Trapped Charges, and Ion Beam Implantation 303

6.7 Surface Mobility 304

6.8 MOSFET Transistor Characteristics 307

6.9 MOSFET Scaling 312

6.10 Nanoscale Photolithography 313

6.11 Ion Beam Implantation 321

6.12 MOSFET Fabrication 323

6.13 CMOS Structures 328

6.14 Threshold Voltage Adjustment 329

6.15 Two-Dimensional Electron Gas 331

6.16 Modeling Nanoscale MOSFETs 336

6.17 Flash Memory 338

6.18 Tunneling 340

6.19 Summary 348

Problems 350

Notes 352

Recommended Reading 352

Chapter 7 The Quantum Dot 353

7.1 Introduction and Overview 354

7.2 Quantum Dot Semiconductor Materials 356

7.3 Synthesis of Quantum Dots 357

7.4 Quantum Dot Confinement Physics 363

7.5 Franck-Condon Principle and the Stokes Shift 369

7.6 The Quantum Mechanical Oscillator 376

7.7 Vibronic Transitions 379

7.8 Surface Passivation 383

7.9 Auger Processes 389

7.10 Biological Applications of Quantum Dots 396

7.11 Summary 397

Problems 398

Recommended Reading 399

Chapter 8 Organic Semiconductor Materials and Devices 400

8.1 Introduction to Organic Electronics 401

8.2 Conjugated Systems 402

8.3 Polymer OLEDs 408

8.4 Small-Molecule OLEDs 413

8.5 Anode Materials 417

8.6 Cathode Materials 417

8.7 Hole Injection Layer 418

8.8 Electron Injection Layer 420

8.9 Hole Transport Layer 420

8.10 Electron Transport Layer 422

8.11 Light Emitting Material Processes 424

8.12 Host Materials 426

8.13 Fluorescent Dopants 428

8.14 Phosphorescent and Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Dopants 430

8.15 Organic Solar Cells 434

8.16 Organic Solar Cell Materials 439

8.17 The Organic Field Effect Transistor 443

8.18 Summary 446

Problems 450

Notes 455

Suggestions for Further Reading 455

Chapter 9 One- and Two-Dimensional Semiconductor Materials and Devices 456

9.1 Introduction 457

9.2 Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals 458

9.3 Density Functional Theory 465

9.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides 467

9.5 Multigate MOSFETs 472

9.6 Summary 476

Problems 477

Recommended Reading 478

Appendix 1: Physical Constants 479

Appendix 2: Derivation of the Uncertainty Principle 480

Appendix 3: Derivation of Group Velocity 484

Appendix 4: Reduced Mass 486

Appendix 5: The Boltzmann Distribution Function 488

Appendix 6: Properties of Semiconductor Materials 494

Appendix 7: Calculation of the Bonding and Antibonding Orbital Energies Versus Interproton Separation for the Hydrogen Molecular Ion 496

Index 501

About the Author

Adrian Kitai, PhD, is Professor in the Departments of Materials Science and Engineering and Engineering Physics at McMaster University, Ontario, Canada. He has researched and published widely on semiconductor materials and devices for optoelectronics, and has industry experience as founder of two companies in the fields of electronics and optical materials.