Foreword.
Preface to the Second Edition.
Preface to the First Edition.
Introduction.
1. The Requirements Problem.
The Goal of Software Development.A Look at the Data.The Root Causes
of Project Success and Failure.The Frequency of Requirements
Errors.The High Cost of Requirements Errors.Summary.
2. Introduction to Requirements Management.
Definitions.What Is a Software Requirement?What Is Requirements
Management?Application of Requirements Management Techniques.Types
of Software Applications.Systems Applications.The Road Map.The
Problem Domain.Stakeholder Needs.Moving Toward the Solution
Domain.Features of the System.Software Requirements.Summary.
3. Requirements and the Software Lifecycle.
Traditional Software Process Models.The Waterfall Model.The Spiral
Model.The Iterative Approach.Lifecycle
Phases.Iterations.Disciplines.Requirements in the Iterative
Model.Summary.
4. The Software Team.
Software Development as a Team Activity.Requisite Team Skills for
Effective Requirements Management.Team Members Have Different
Skills.The Organization of Software Teams.The Case Study.Background
for the Case Study.The HOLIS Software Development Team.Summary.Team
Skill 1 Analyzing the Problem.
5. The Five Steps in Problem Analysis.
Step 1: Gain Agreement on the Problem Definition.The Problem
Statement.Step 2: Understand the Root Causes-The Problem Behind the
Problem.Addressing the Root Cause 48Step 3: Identify the
Stakeholders and the Users.Step 4: Define the Solution System
Boundary.Step 5: Identify the Constraints to Be Imposed on the
Solution.Summary.Looking Ahead.
6. Business Modeling.
The Purpose of Business Modeling.Using Software Engineering
Techniques for Business Modeling.Choosing the Right Technique.The
Unified Modeling Language.Business Modeling Using UML Concepts.From
the Business Model to the Systems Model.When to Use Business
Modeling.Summary.Looking Ahead.
7. Systems Engineering of Software-Intensive Systems.
What Is Systems Engineering?Pragmatic Principles of Systems
Engineering.The Composition and Decomposition of Complex
Systems.Requirements Allocation in Systems Engineering.On Derived
Requirements.A Quiet Revolution.When Generations Collide: Graying
Baby Boomer Meets Generation X-er.Avoiding the Stovepipe System
Problem.When Subsystems Are Subcontracts.Addressing the
Conundrum.The Case Study: Systems Engineering for HOLIS.Preliminary
User Needs.Problem Analysis.HOLIS: The System, Actors, and
Stakeholders.HOLIS Systems Engineering.The Subsystems of
HOLIS.Summary.Team Skill 1 Summary.Team Skill 2 Understanding User
and Stakeholder Needs.
8. The Challenge of Requirements Elicitation.
Barriers to Elicitation.The "Yes, But" Syndrome.The "Undiscovered
Ruins" Syndrome.The "User and the Developer" Syndrome.Summary.
9. The Features of a Product or System.
Stakeholder and User Needs.Features.Managing Complexity by Picking
the Level of Abstraction.Attributes of Product
Features.Summary.
10. Interviewing.
Context-Free Questions.Solutions-Context Questions.The Moment of
Truth: The Interview.Compiling the Needs Data.The Analyst's
Summary: 10 + 10 + 10 pi 30.The Case Study.A Note on
Questionnaires.Summary.
11. Requirements Workshops.
Accelerating the Decision Process.Preparing for the
Workshop.Selling the Concept.Ensuring the Participation of the
Right Stakeholders.Attending to Logistics.Providing Warm-Up
Materials.Choosing the Facilitator.Setting the Agenda.Running the
Workshop.Problems and Tricks of the Trade.Brainstorming and Idea
Reduction.Production and Follow-Up.Summary.
12. Brainstorming and Idea Reduction.
Live Brainstorming.Idea Reduction.Pruning Ideas.Grouping
Ideas.Defining Features.Prioritizing Ideas.Web-Based
Brainstorming.The Case Study: The HOLIS Requirements Workshop.The
Attendees.The Workshop.The Session.The Analysis of
Results.Summary.
13. Storyboarding.
Types of Storyboards.What Storyboards Do.Tools for
Storyboarding.Tips for Storyboarding.Summary.Team Skill 2
Summary.Team Skill 3 Defining the System.
14. A Use Case Primer.
The Benefits of Use Cases.Use Case Basics.On Actors.Use Case
Anatomy.A Step-by-Step Guide to Building the Use-Case Model.Step 1:
Identify and Describe the Actors.Step 2: Identify the Use Cases and
Write a Brief Description.Step 3: Identify the Actor and Use-Case
Relationships.Step 4: Outline the Individual Use Cases.Step 5:
Refine the Use Cases.On Use Cases, Storyboarding, and User
Interface Design.Use Cases and User Interfaces.Use Cases and
Storyboarding.A Use Case Storyboard Example.The Case Study: The
HOLIS Use Cases.Find the HOLIS Actors.Find the HOLIS Use
Cases.Associate the Actors and Use Cases.Outline the Use
Cases.Summary.
15. Organizing Requirements Information.
Organizing Requirements of Complex Hardware and Software
Systems.Organizing Requirements for Product Families.On "Future"
Requirements.The Case Study: Organizing the HOLIS
Requirements.Summary.Looking Ahead.
16. The Vision Document.
Components of the Vision Document.The Delta Vision Document.The
Vision Document for Version 1.0.The Vision Document for Version
2.0.The Delta Vision Document in a Legacy System
Environment.Summary.
17. Product Management.
The Role of the Product Champion.The Product Manager in a Software
Product Company.Primary Activities for a Product Manager.Driving
the Vision.Maintaining the Product Road Map.Defining the Whole
Product Plan.Sponsoring the Use-Case Model and Supplementary
Requirements.Testing the Product Concept.Completing the User
Experience.Defining Commercial Terms.Positioning and
Messaging.Supporting Activities.Branding and Product Labeling.End
User Training Materials.Product Demo.Sales and Marketing
Collateral.The Product Champion in an IS/IT Shop.Summary.Team Skill
3 Summary.Team Skill 4 Managing Scope.
18. Establishing Project Scope.
The Problem of Project Scope.The Hard Question.The Requirements
Baseline.Setting Priorities.Assessing Effort.Adding the Risk
Element.Reducing Scope.A Reasonable First Estimate.The Case Study:
Scope Management for HOLIS.Summary.
19. Managing Your Customer.
Engaging Customers to Manage Their Project Scope.Communicating the
Result.Negotiating with the Customer.Managing the Baseline.Official
Changes.Unofficial Changes.Summary.Team Skill 4 Summary.Team Skill
5 Refining the System Definition.
20. Software Requirements-A More Rigorous Look.
Looking Deeper into Software Requirements.The Relationship between
Software Requirements and Use Cases.The Relationship between
Features and Software Requirements.The Requirements Dilemma: What
versus How.Excluding Project Information.Excluding Design
Information.More on Requirements versus Design.Iterating
Requirements and Design.A Further Characterization of
Requirements.Functional Software Requirements.Nonfunctional
Software Requirements.Design Constraints.Summary.Looking Ahead.
21. Refining the Use Cases.
How Use Cases Evolve.The Scope of a Use Case.The Case Study:
Anatomy of a Simple Use Case.Reviewing the Actors.Reviewing the
Name.Refining the Description.Defining and Refining the Flow of
Events.Identifying the Pre- and Post-conditions.Identifying Special
Requirements.Summary of Our Refined Use Case.Extending Use
Cases.Including Use Cases in Other Use Cases.Summary.Looking
Ahead.
22. Developing the Supplementary Specification.
The Role of the Supplementary Specification.Expressing Functional
Requirements in the Supplementary Specification.Exploring
Nonfunctional
Requirements.Usability.Reliability.Performance.Supportability.Understanding
Design Constraints.Sources of Design Constraints.Handling Design
Constraints.Are Design Constraints True Requirements?Identifying
Other Requirements.Linking the Supplementary Specification to the
Use Cases.Template for the Supplementary
Specification.Summary.Looking Ahead.
23. On Ambiguity and Specificity.
Finding the "Sweet Spot".Mary Had a Little Lamb.Techniques for
Disambiguation.Summary.
24. Technical Methods for Specifying Requirements.
Pseudocode.Finite State Machines.Decision Tables and Decision
Trees.Activity Diagrams.Entity-Relationship Models.Summary.Team
Skill 5 Summary.Team Skill 6 Building the Right System.
25. From Use Cases to Implementation.
Mapping Requirements Directly to Design and Code.The Orthogonality
Problem.Object Orientation.The Use Case as a Requirement.Managing
the Transition.Modeling Software Systems.The Architecture of
Software Systems.The Role of the Use-Case Model in
Architecture.Realizing Use Cases in the Design Model.Structural and
Behavioral Aspects of Collaborations.Using Collaborations to
Realize Sets of Individual Requirements.From Design to
Implementation.Summary.Looking Ahead.
26. From Use Cases to Test Cases.
A Tester's Perspective: Musings on the Big Black Box.Is a Use Case
a Test Case?Common Testing Terms.Relationships of Test
Artifacts.The Role of the Test Cases.Use-Case Scenarios.Deriving
Test Cases from Use Cases: A Four-Step Process.Step 1: Identify the
Use-Case Scenarios.Step 2: Identify the Test Cases.Step 3: Identify
the Test Conditions.Step 4: Add Data Values to Complete the Test
Case.Managing Test Coverage.Black-Box versus White-Box Testing with
Use Cases.Summary.
27. Tracing Requirements.
The Role of Traceability in Systems Development.The Traceability
Relationship.A Generalized Traceability Model.Tracing Requirements
in the System Definition Domain.Tracing Requirements to
Implementation.Tracing from Requirements to Testing.Using
Traceability Tools.Proceeding without Traceability
Tools.Summary.
28. Managing Change.
Why Do Requirements Change?External Factors.Internal Factors.°We
Have Met the Enemy, and They Is Us°.A Process for Managing
Change.Step 1: Recognize That Change Is Inevitable, and Plan for
It.Step 2: Baseline the Requirements.Step 3: Establish a Single
Channel to Control Change.Step 4: Use a Change Control System to
Capture Changes.Step 5: Manage Change Hierarchically.Requirements
Configuration Management.Tool-Based Support for Change
Management.Elements Impacted by Change.Audit Trail of Change
History.Configuration Management and Change
Management.Summary.Looking Ahead.
29. Assessing Requirements Quality in Iterative
Development.
Software Project Quality.Assessing Quality in Iterative
Development.Requirements Artifacts Sets.Performing the
Assessment.Quality Assessment Checklists for
Requirements.Summary.Team Skill 6 Summary.Looking Ahead.Getting
Started.Dedication.What You've Learned So Far.Introduction.Team
Skill 1: Analyzing the Problem.Team Skill 2: Understanding User and
Stakeholder Needs.Team Skill 3: Defining the System.Team Skill 4:
Managing Scope.Team Skill 5: Refining the System Definition.Team
Skill 6: Building the Right System.
30. Agile Requirements Methods.
Mitigating Requirements Risk with Effective Requirements
Practices.Methodology Design Goals.Documentation Is a Means to an
End.An Extreme Requirements Method.An Agile Requirements Method.A
Robust Requirements Method.Summary.
31. Your Prescription for Requirements Management.
Selecting Your Requirements Approach.The Simplifying
Assumptions.The Prescription.On to the Next Release!
Appendixes.
Appendix A. HOLIS Artifacts.
Appendix B. Vision Document Template.
Appendix C. Use-Case Specification Template.
Appendix D. Supplementary Specification Template.
Appendix E. Requirements Management in the Rational Unified
Process.
Appendix F. Requirements Management in the SEI-CMM and within
ISO 9000:2000.
Bibliography.
Index. 032112247XT05082003
Dean Leffingwell, software business development consultant and former Rational Software executive, is a recognized authority on software requirements. He was cofounder and chief executive officer of Requisite, Inc., where he developed RequisitePro, the highly successful requirements management software tool, and Requirements College, the basis of Rational's popular requirements management professional development course series.
Don Widrig is an independent technical writer and consultant. He developed and delivered Rational Software's RequisitePro Tool Training Course until his "retirement" to the mountains of Colorado in 1997. When he is not busy watching the elk in his yard, Don writes a regular column for his local newspaper and does pro bono work helping the townspeople deal with their computers. He was formerly the vice president of research and development at RELA, Inc., a producer of safety-critical, real-time systems.
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