Preface xii
1 Constructing Our Public Philosophies 1
Public Philosophies and Political Ideologies 1
Political Theory 3
Searching for an Underlying Consensus Within Pluralism 13
Ideas Beyond the Underlying Consensus of Pluralism 15
Conclusions 20
Part I Participants in our Political Conversations 23
2 Voices from the Major Ideologies of the Nineteenth Century 27
Classical Liberalism: Building Democratic Capitalism 27
Traditional Conservatism: Defending the Old Social Order 31
Anarchism: Rebelling Against Authority 37
Marxism: Pursuing a Classless Society 39
Conclusions 42
3 Prominent Totalitarian and Pluralist Voices of the Twentieth Century 46
Communism: Fighting Imperialism in Developing Societies 47
Fascism and Nazism: Totalitarian Control to Strengthen the Collective 52
Contemporary Liberalism: Reforming Capitalism and Democracy 56
Contemporary Conservatism: Opposing Liberal and Socialist Programs 63
Conclusions 70
4 Radical and Extreme Voices in Contemporary Politics 74
The Radical Left: Seeking More Egalitarian and Communal Societies 77
The Radical Right: Seeking More Economic Freedom or Moral Consensus 85
The Extreme Right: Returning to More Homogeneous Societies 91
The Extreme Left: Deconstructing Global Neoliberalism 93
Conclusions 96
Part II Philosophical Assumptions: Their Importance as Foundations for Political Principles 101
5 Questions of Ontology 107
Traditional Conservatives: Emphasizing the “Great Chain of Being” 109
Classical Liberals: Deism, Naturalism, and Materialism 110
Anarchists: Natural Interconnections, Ideas, and Conflicts 111
Marxists: Economic Determinism 113
Communists: Revising Dialectical Materialism 117
Fascists and Nazis: Heroic Will and Racial Struggle 119
Contemporary Liberals: Deemphasizing Ontology and Embracing Contingency 121
Contemporary Conservatives: Appreciating the World As It Is 123
The Radical Right: Refuting Charges of Economic and Divine Determination 124
The Extreme Right: Expecting a Divine Apocalypse 126
The Radical Left: Tempering Material Forces with Socialist Ideals 127
The Extreme Left: Releasing Human Imagination, Constrained by Ecological Limits 128
Conclusions 130
6 Questions of Human Nature 133
Classical Liberals: Humans as Equal and Rational Pursuers of Happiness 135
Traditional Conservatives: Defining Humans by their Places in Society 137
Anarchists: Seeing Human Altruism as Hindered by Conventional Institutions 138
Marxists: Conceiving Humans as Creative Laborers 139
Communists: Creating a “New Man” 141
Fascists and Nazis: Energizing the Will of “the Herd” 142
Contemporary Liberals: Fostering Autonomy, Reason, and Moral Development 143
The Radical Left: Stressing our Common Humanity and Individual Differences 145
Contemporary Conservatives: Accepting Human Imperfection 147
The Radical Right: Embedding Humans in Moral Communities and/or Free Markets 149
The Extreme Right: Regarding Humans as either Good or Evil 151
The Extreme Left: Rejecting an Essential Human Nature 152
Conclusions 153
7 Questions of Society 155
Classical Liberals: Individuals Seeking Mutual Benefits Through a Social Contract 156
Traditional Conservatives: Organic Societies that Come Before Individuals 158
Anarchists: Natural Societies Built on Friendship 160
Marxists: Transforming Class-Based Societies into Classless Ones 161
Communists: Non-Proletarian Contributions to a Classless Society 163
Fascists and Nazis: Defining Society in Nationalist and Racist Terms 164
Contemporary Liberals: Promoting Social Pluralism 165
Contemporary Conservatives: Seeing Society as a Delicate Watch 166
The Radical Right: Holding either Communitarian or Libertarian Visions of Society 168
The Radical Left: Searching for More Communal and Egalitarian Societies 168
The Extreme Right: Seeking Homogeneous Societies 170
The Extreme Left: Longing for Societies of “Singularities Pursuing the Common” 171
Conclusions 172
8 Questions of Epistemology 175
Classical Liberals: Moving from Natural Rights to Utilitarianism 177
Traditional Conservatives: Doubting Reason, Stressing Conventional Wisdom 180
Anarchists: Depending on a Vision of Human and Social Possibility 182
Marxists: A Science Showing the Inevitability, not the Goodness, of Communism 183
Communists: Generating Truths from Authoritative Readings of Marx 185
Fascists and Nazis: Finding Absolute Truth in the Intuitions of a Political Leader 186
Contemporary Liberals: Emphasizing Pragmatism 187
Contemporary Conservatives: Using a Social Science of Political Failure 190
The Radical Right: Finding Meaning in Tradition and Truth through Science 192
The Radical Left: Emphasizing Political Rationality 194
The Extreme Right: Finding Truth in Authoritative Texts and Leaders 197
The Extreme Left: Contesting and Deconstructing all Truths 198
Conclusions 199
Part III The Great Issues of Politics: Consensual and Contested Principles 203
9 Questions of Community 207
Classical Liberals: Presupposing the Primacy of Nations 208
Traditional Conservatives: Patriots Lacking Nationalist Fervor 210
Anarchists: Rejecting Conventional Communities While Seeking Natural Ones 212
Marxists: Identifying with the Working Class and Eventually Humanity 213
Communists: Fighting Imperialism Through Nationalist Appeals 214
Fascists and Nazis: Embracing a Unified Nation and an Aryan State 215
Contemporary Liberals: Nations Built on Individual and Group Differences 216
Contemporary Conservatives: Seeking Moral, but not Communitarian, Countries 218
The Radical Right: Competing Global, National, and Sub-National Loyalties 220
The Radical Left: Pursuing Solidarity Among Diverse People in Many Polities 223
The Extreme Right: Rejecting Multiple Community Identities 225
The Extreme Left: Deconstructing Current Identities 226
Conclusions 228
10 Questions of Citizenship 232
Classical Liberals: Curbing Citizenship, Providing Limited Rights and Obligations 233
Traditional Conservatives: Stressing Loyalty and Obedience to Authorities 235
Anarchists: Comrades Without Political Obligations 237
Marxists: Transforming Alienated Workers into Public-Spirited Comrades 238
Communists: Transforming Oppressed People into Obedient Revolutionaries 239
Fascists and Nazis: Mobilizing Dutiful Citizens for Purposes of State 240
Contemporary Liberals: Pursuing Inclusion and Expanding Rights 241
Contemporary Conservatives: Developing More Responsible Citizens 245
The Radical Right: Privileging Property Rights and Instilling Virtue 248
The Radical Left: Embracing Multiple and Deep Citizenships 250
The Extreme Right: Restricting Citizenship 254
The Extreme Left: Changing Passive Citizens into Contentious Ones 255
Conclusions 256
11 Questions of Structure 260
Classical Liberals: Designing Free Markets and Representative Democracies 261
Traditional Conservatives: Emphasizing Civil Society and Cultural Norms 264
Anarchists: Rejecting All Conventional Structures 266
Marxists: Stressing the Oppression of Capitalism 268
Communists: Emphasizing Party Organizations 269
Fascists and Nazis: Empowering Totalitarian States 271
Contemporary Liberals: Balancing and Integrating Government and Capitalism 272
Contemporary Conservatives: Reining in Strong States 276
The Radical Right: More Freedom in The Marketplace and Less Cultural Freedom 277
The Radical Left: Pursuing Market Socialism and Democratic Cultures 280
The Extreme Right: Seeking Theocracies 283
The Extreme Left: Fighting Globalization and Other Forms of Domination 285
Conclusions 286
12 Questions of Rulers 289
Classical Liberals: Empowering Representatives While Holding Them Accountable 290
Traditional Conservatives: Finding a Place for Elitism Within Democracy 292
Anarchists: Rejecting All Rulers 293
Marxists: The Need for a Temporary Dictatorship of the Proletariat 293
Communists: The Need for a Vanguard of the Proletariat 295
Fascists and Nazis: Concentrating Power in the Hands of a Single Ruler 296
Contemporary Liberals: More Representative and Responsive Democracies 297
The Radical Left: More Inclusive and Participatory Democracies 300
Contemporary Conservatives: More Formal Representative Democracy 302
The Radical Right: Democracy as Freedom 304
The Extreme Right: Imagining Conspiracies 307
The Extreme Left: Seeing Formidable Obstacles to Radical and Global Democracy 308
Conclusions 310
13 Questions of Authority 314
Classical Liberals: Authorizing Limited Governments that Secure (Property) Rights 316
Traditional Conservatives: Orchestrating Social Harmony 318
Anarchists: Rejecting All Governmental Authority 320
Marxists: Authority As Oppressive, Then Necessary, and Finally Eliminated 322
Communists: Justifying Massive Authority as a Means to Abolish the State 322
Fascists and Nazis: Embracing Totalitarian State Authority 324
Contemporary Liberalism: From Limited Government to a Strong State 326
Contemporary Conservatives: Limiting the Activity of Governments 329
The Radical Right: Starving Government While Imposing Social Regulations 331
The Radical Left: Enhancing the Public Sphere 334
The Extreme Right: Resisting Authority that Disregards Sacred Texts 339
The Extreme Left: Contesting Governmental Authority 340
Conclusions 341
14 Questions of Justice 343
Classical Liberals: Equal Dignity but Unequal Rewards 345
Traditional Conservatives: Unequal Rights but Commensurate Responsibilities 347
Anarchists: Right Conduct in the Absence of Just Institutions 350
Marxists: Transcending the Circumstances of Justice 352
Communists: Using Social Control to Build a Society in which All Needs are Met 354
Fascists and Nazis: National or Racial Dominance as More Important than Justice 355
Contemporary Liberals: Compensating for Undeserved Disadvantages 355
The Radical Left: Pursuing a More Egalitarian Society 359
Contemporary Conservatives: Criticizing Social Justice, Emphasizing Compassion 366
The Radical Right: Focusing on Fair Procedures and the Pursuit of the Common Good 369
The Extreme Right: Regarding Moral Goodness as the Basis of Just Outcomes 372
The Extreme Left: Decrying Global Injustice while Striving to Share “the Common” 373
Conclusions 375
15 Questions of Change 377
Classical Liberals: Seeking Economic, Intellectual, and Moral Progress 378
Traditional Conservatives: Slowing the Winds of Change 381
Marxists: Predicting Revolution From Below 382
Anarchists: Calling for Rebellion rather than Revolution 384
Communists: Generating Revolutions While Deviating From Marxist Orthodoxy 386
Fascists and Nazis: Revolutionary Change Toward Certain Conservative Values 389
Contemporary Liberals: Achieving Fundamental Change Incrementally 390
Contemporary Conservatives: Pursuing Reforms – of “Failed” Liberal Programs 392
The Radical Right: Seeking Major Changes, even if they Enhance Inequalities 393
The Extreme Right: Returning to a Past of Greater Moral Certainty 396
The Radical Left: Evolutionary Change Toward More Democratic Equality 397
The Extreme Left: Wholesale and Ongoing Change – Without Revolutions 399
Conclusions 403
Notes 406
References 442
Index 458
Paul Schumaker is Professor of Political Science at the University of Kansas, where he has taught courses in political theory and community politics since 1972. Dr. Schumaker has authored several books on political theory, including Critical Pluralism, Democratic Performance, and Community Power (1991).
"The strengths of this work are many. Schumaker's schematic
analysis of political ideas is thorough but never pedantic, and he
illustrates his analysis with frequent and compelling examples. The
result is a thoughtfully written text which will invite students
into an interconnected dialogue about their most basic political
beliefs. Students whose first exposure to political ideologies and
philosophies comes through Schumaker's book will appreciate better
not only their own opinions, but will have a better grasp of the
advantages and limitations of a pluralistic system like our own,
which allows other people's opinions to flourish as well."
Russell Arben Fox, Friends University
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