Alphabetical Table of Contents xi

Preface xiv

Acknowledgements xvi

1 Basic Tools for Argument 1

1.1 Arguments, premises and conclusions 1

1.2 Deduction 6

1.3 Induction 8

1.4 Validity and soundness 13

1.5 Invalidity 17

1.6 Consistency 19

1.7 Fallacies 23

1.8 Refutation 26

1.9 Axioms 28

1.10 Definitions 31

1.11 Certainty and probability 34

1.12 Tautologies, self-contradictions and the law of non-contradiction 38

2 More Advanced Tools 42

2.1 Abduction 42

2.2 Hypothetico-deductive method 46

2.3 Dialectic 49

2.4 Analogies 52

2.5 Anomalies and exceptions that prove the rule 55

2.6 Intuition pumps 58

2.7 Logical constructions 60

2.8 Reduction 62

2.9 Thought experiments 65

2.10 Useful fictions 68

3 Tools for Assessment 71

3.1 Alternative explanations 72

3.2 Ambiguity 74

3.3 Bivalence and the excluded middle 77

3.4 Category mistakes 79

3.5 Ceteris paribus 81

3.6 Circularity 84

3.7 Conceptual incoherence 87

3.8 Counterexamples 90

3.9 Criteria 93

3.10 Error theory 95

3.11 False dichotomy 97

3.12 False cause 99

3.13 Genetic fallacy 101

3.14 Horned dilemmas 105

3.15 Is/ought gap 108

3.16 Masked man fallacy 110

3.17 Partners in guilt 113

3.18 Principle of charity 114

3.19 Question-begging 118

3.20 Reductios 121

3.21 Redundancy 123

3.22 Regresses 125

3.23 Saving the phenomena 127

3.24 Self-defeating arguments 130

3.25 Sufficient reason 133

3.26 Testability 136

4 Tools for Conceptual Distinctions 140

4.1 A priori/a posteriori 141

4.2 Absolute/relative 144

4.3 Analytic/synthetic 147

4.4 Categorical/modal 150

4.5 Conditional/biconditional 151

4.6 De re/de dicto 153

4.7 Defeasible/indefeasible 156

4.8 Entailment/implication 158

4.9 Essence/accident 161

4.10 Internalism/externalism 164

4.11 Knowledge by acquaintance/description 167

4.12 Necessary/contingent 170

4.13 Necessary/sufficient 173

4.14 Objective/subjective 176

4.15 Realist/non-realist 178

4.16 Sense/reference 181

4.17 Syntax/semantics 182

4.18 Thick/thin concepts 185

4.19 Types/tokens 187

5 Tools of Historical Schools and Philosophers 190

5.1 Aphorism, fragment, remark 190

5.2 Categories and specific differences 193

5.3 Elenchus and aporia 196

5.4 Hume’s fork 199

5.5 Indirect discourse 202

5.6 Leibniz’s law of identity 204

5.7 Ockham’s razor 209

5.8 Phenomenological method(s) 211

5.9 Signs and signifiers 214

5.10 Transcendental argument 218

6 Tools for Radical Critique 222

6.1 Class critique 222

6.2 Deconstruction and the critique of presence 225

6.3 Empiricist critique of metaphysics 227

6.4 Feminist critique 229

6.5 Foucaultian critique of power 231

6.6 Heideggerian critique of metaphysics 234

6.7 Lacanian critique 237

6.8 Critiques of naturalism 239

6.9 Nietzschean critique of Christian-Platonic culture 241

6.10 Pragmatist critique 244

6.11 Sartrean critique of ‘bad faith’ 246

7 Tools at the Limit 249

7.1 Basic beliefs 249

7.2 Gödel and incompleteness 252

7.3 Philosophy and/as art 254

7.4 Mystical experience and revelation 257

7.5 Paradoxes 259

7.6 Possibility and impossibility 262

7.7 Primitives 265

7.8 Self-evident truths 267

7.9 Scepticism 270

7.10 Underdetermination 273

Internet Resources for Philosophers 276

Index 277

About the Author

Julian Baggini is Academic Director of the Royal Institute of Philosophy and an Honorary Research Fellow at the University of Kent. He was the founding editor of The Philosophers' Magazine and has written for numerous newspapers and magazines, as well as for the think tanks The Institute of Public Policy Research, Demos, and Counterpoint. He is the author, co-author, or editor of over 20 books, including How The World Thinks, The Virtues of the Table, The Ego Trick, Freedom Regained, and The Edge of Reason.
Peter S. Fosl is Professor of Philosophy and chair of PPE at Transylvania University, Kentucky. He is author of Hume's Scepticism (2020), co-author of The Critical Thinking Toolkit (Wiley Blackwell, 2016) and The Ethics Toolkit (Wiley Blackwell, 2007), editor of The Big Lebowski and Philosophy (Wiley Blackwell, 2012), and co-editor of Philosophy: The Classic Readings (Wiley Blackwell, 2009). His work covers the history of scepticism, especially in the writings of David Hume, and the philosophical dimensions of popular culture.

Reviews

"The Philosopher's Toolkit is a very good book. It could be
highly useful for both introductory courses in philosophy, or
philosophical methodology, as well as independent study for anyone
interested in the methods of argument, assessment and criticism
used in contemporary analytic philosophy. It is unique in approach,
and written in a pleasant and considerate tone. Its authors are
both competent philosophers, and the book visibly reflects their
deep sympathy to the discipline and their appreciation of its
unique character. This book will help one to get going to do
philosophy, but more advanced students might find this text helpful
too. I wish I had had access to this book as an undergraduate."
(Teaching Philosophy)
"This book is ... an encyclopedia of philosophy. It should be of
great use as a quick and accurate reference guide to the skill of
philosophy, especially for beginners, but also for instructors ...
highly recommended." (Choice)

"Its choice of tools for basic argument ... is sound, while
further tools for argument ... move through topics and examples
concisely and wittily... Sources are well chosen and indicated step
by step. Sections are cross-referenced (making it better than the
Teach Youself "100 philosophical concepts") and supported by a
useful index." (Reference Reviews)

"...the average person who is interested in arguments and logic
but who doesn't have much background in philosophy would certainly
find this book useful, as would anyone teaching a course on
arguments, logic, and reasoning. Even introductory courses on
philosophy in general might benefit because the book lays out so
many of the conceptual "tools" which will prove necessary over
students' careers." (About.com)