About the Authors xv
Preface xvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Microwaves and radio frequencies 1
1.2 Frequency bands 4
1.3 Applications 6
Bibliography 8
2 Basic electromagnetic theory 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Maxwell’s equations 9
2.3 Time-harmonic EM fields; polarization of a vector 12
2.4 Maxwell’s equations in the harmonic regime 14
2.5 Boundary conditions 15
2.6 Energy and power of the EM field; Poynting’s theorem 17
2.7 Some fundamental theorems 19
2.7.1 Uniqueness theorem 19
2.7.2 Lorentz’s reciprocity theorem 19
2.7.3 Love’s equivalence theorem 20
2.8 Plane waves 21
2.9 Solution of the wave equation in rectangular coordinates 22
2.9.1 Plane waves: an alternative derivation 24
2.9.2 TEM waves 25
2.9.3 TE and TM waves 26
2.10 Reflection and transmission of plane waves; Snel’s laws 27
2.10.1 Snel’s laws; total reflection 28
2.10.2 Reflection and transmission (Fresnel’s) coefficients 31
2.10.3 Reflection from a conducting plane 34
2.11 Electrodynamic potentials 36
Bibliography 38
3 Guided EM propagation 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Cylindrical structures; solution of Maxwell’s equations as TE, TM and TEM modes 41
3.3 Modes of propagation as transmission lines 48
3.4 Transmission lines as 1-D circuits 52
3.5 Phase velocity, group velocity and energy velocity 55
3.6 Properties of the transverse modal vectors et, ht; field expansion in a waveguide 57
3.7 Loss, attenuation and power handling in real waveguides 59
3.8 The rectangular waveguide 61
3.9 The ridge waveguide 67
3.10 The circular waveguide 68
3.11 The coaxial cable 72
3.12 The parallel-plate waveguide 74
3.13 The stripline 76
3.14 The microstrip line 78
3.14.1 The planar waveguide model 82
3.15 The coplanar waveguide 82
3.16 Coupled lines 84
3.16.1 Basic principles for EM analysis 85
3.16.2 Equivalent circuit modelling 86
Bibliography 88
4 Microwave circuits 91
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Microwave circuit formulation 91
4.3 Terminated transmission lines 94
4.4 The Smith chart 97
4.5 Power flow 105
4.6 Matrix representations 109
4.6.1 The impedance matrix 109
4.6.2 The admittance matrix 110
4.6.3 The ABCD or chain matrix 111
4.6.4 The scattering matrix 112
4.7 Circuit model of a transmission line section 119
4.8 Shifting the reference planes 123
4.9 Loaded two-port network 124
4.10 Matrix description of coupled lines 125
4.11 Matching of coupled lines 126
4.12 Two-port networks using coupled-line sections 127
Bibliography 129
5 Resonators and cavities 131
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 The resonant condition 131
5.3 Quality factor or Q 134
5.4 Transmission line resonators 136
5.5 Planar resonators 139
5.6 Cavity resonators 142
5.7 Computation of the Q factor of a cavity resonator 144
5.8 Dielectric resonators 146
5.9 Expansion of EM fields 147
5.9.1 Helmholtz’s theorem 148
5.9.2 Electric and magnetic eigenvectors 148
5.9.3 General solution of Maxwell’s equations in a cavity 153
5.9.4 Resonances in ideal closed cavities 154
5.9.5 The cavity with one or two outputs 155
5.9.6 Excitation of cavity resonators 157
Bibliography 161
6 Impedance matching 163
6.1 Introduction 163
6.2 Fano’s bound 163
6.3 Quarter-wavelength transformer 165
6.4 Multi-section quarter-wavelength transformers 167
6.4.1 The binomial transformer 171
6.4.2 Chebyshev polynomials; the Chebyshev transformer 172
6.5 Line and stub transformers; stub tuners 178
6.6 Lumped L networks 180
Bibliography 185
Simulation files 185
7 Passive microwave components 187
7.1 Introduction 187
7.2 Matched loads 187
7.3 Movable short circuit 188
7.4 Attenuators 190
7.5 Fixed phase shifters 193
7.5.1 Loaded-line phase shifters 193
7.5.2 Reflection-type phase shifters 194
7.6 Junctions and interconnections 195
7.6.1 Guide-to-coaxial cable transition 198
7.6.2 Coaxial-to-microstrip transition 203
7.7 Dividers and combiners 204
7.7.1 The Wilkinson divider 205
7.7.2 Hybrid junctions 209
7.7.3 Directional couplers 211
7.8 Lumped element realizations 221
7.9 Multi-beam forming networks 223
7.9.1 The Butler matrix 224
7.9.2 The Blass matrix 225
7.9.3 The Rotman lens 227
7.10 Non-reciprocal components 230
7.10.1 Isolator 232
7.10.2 Circulator 232
Bibliography 234
Simulation files 235
8 Microwave filters 237
8.1 Introduction 237
8.2 Definitions 237
8.3 Lowpass prototype 239
8.3.1 Butterworth filters 240
8.3.2 Chebyshev filters 240
8.3.3 Cauer filters 244
8.3.4 Synthesis of the lowpass prototype 245
8.4 Semi-lumped lowpass filters 250
8.5 Frequency transformations 254
8.5.1 Lowpass to highpass transformation 255
8.5.2 Lowpass to bandpass transformation 257
8.5.3 Lowpass to bandstop transformation 260
8.5.4 Richards transformation 261
8.6 Kuroda identities 264
8.7 Immittance inverters 267
8.7.1 Filters with line-coupled short-circuit stubs 273
8.7.2 Parallel-coupled filters 277
8.7.3 Comb-line filters 281
Bibliography 286
Simulation files 286
9 Basic concepts for microwave component design 289
9.1 Introduction 289
9.2 Cascaded linear two-port networks 289
9.3 Signal flow graphs 302
9.4 Noise in two-port networks 303
9.4.1 Noise sources 303
9.4.2 Representation of noisy two-port networks 305
9.4.3 Noise figure and noise factor 306
9.4.4 Noise factor of cascaded networks 313
9.4.5 Noise bandwidth 314
9.5 Nonlinear two-port networks 316
9.5.1 Harmonic and intermodulation products 317
9.5.2 Harmonic distortion 317
9.5.3 Intermodulation distortion 319
9.5.4 Gain compression 321
9.5.5 Intercept points 326
9.5.6 Saturation and intercept point of cascaded two-port networks 328
9.6 Semiconductors devices 334
9.6.1 Basic semiconductor physics 334
9.6.2 Junction diode 336
9.6.3 Bipolar transistor 338
9.6.4 Junction field effect transistor 339
9.6.5 Metal oxide field effect transistor 340
9.7 Electrical models of high-frequency semiconductor devices 342
9.7.1 Linear models 342
9.7.2 Nonlinear semiconductor models 348
Bibliography 360
Related Files 360
10 Microwave control components 363
10.1 Introduction 363
10.2 Switches 363
10.2.1 PIN diode switches 368
10.2.2 FET switches 375
10.2.3 MEMS switches 379
10.2.4 Alternative multi-port switch structures 385
10.3 Variable attenuators 389
10.4 Phase shifters 400
10.4.1 True-delay and slow-wave phase shifters 402
10.4.2 Reflection phase shifters 404
10.4.3 Stepped phase shifters 407
10.4.4 Binary phase shifters 408
10.4.5 Final considerations on phase shifters 412
Bibliography 412
Related files 413
11 Amplifiers 415
11.1 Introduction 415
11.2 Small-signal amplifiers 415
11.2.1 Gain definitions 416
11.2.2 Stability 420
11.2.3 Matching networks 424
11.2.4 Maximum gain impedance matching 425
11.3 Low-noise amplifiers 429
11.4 Design of trial amplifier 432
11.5 Power amplifiers 440
11.5.1 Output power optimization with negligible transistor parasitics 440
11.5.2 Output power optimization in presence of transistor parasitics 444
11.5.3 Load pull 451
11.5.4 Balanced amplifiers 454
11.5.5 PA classes 459
11.5.6 Amplifier linearization 473
11.5.7 Additional PA issues 481
11.6 Other amplifier configurations 482
11.6.1 Feedback amplifiers 483
11.6.2 Distributed amplifiers 485
11.6.3 Differential pairs 489
11.6.4 Active loads 494
11.6.5 Cascode configuration 495
11.7 Some examples of microwave amplifiers 497
11.7.1 Two-stage millimetre-wave amplifier 497
11.7.2 Low-noise amplifier 499
Bibliography 501
Related files 501
12 Oscillators 503
12.1 Introduction 503
12.2 General principles 503
12.3 Negative resistance oscillators 508
12.4 Positive feedback oscillators 512
12.5 Standard oscillator configuration 518
12.5.1 Inductively coupled oscillator 521
12.5.2 Inductive gate feedback oscillator 523
12.5.3 Hartley oscillator 525
12.5.4 Colpitts oscillator 526
12.5.5 Clapp oscillator 527
12.5.6 Differential oscillator 528
12.6 Design of a trial oscillator 530
12.7 Oscillator specifications 534
12.8 Special oscillators 543
12.8.1 Lumped element and transmission line oscillators 543
12.8.2 Cavity oscillators and dielectric resonator oscillators 547
12.8.3 Voltage-controlled oscillators 549
12.8.4 Push–push oscillators 553
12.8.5 Amplitude-stabilized oscillators 555
12.9 Design of a push –push microwave VCO 557
Bibliography 559
Related files 559
13 Frequency converters 561
13.1 Introduction 561
13.2 Detectors 561
13.2.1 Quadratic diode detector 563
13.2.2 Envelope detectors 570
13.2.3 FET detectors 573
13.3 Mixers 577
13.3.1 Product detector 579
13.3.2 Single-ended diode mixers 581
13.3.3 Singly balanced diode mixers 584
13.3.4 Doubly balanced diode mixers 590
13.3.5 Subharmonically pumped mixers 594
13.3.6 Image reject mixers 597
13.3.7 Suppression in presence of amplitude and phase imbalance 600
13.3.8 FET mixers 602
13.3.9 Mixers based on differential pairs 606
13.3.10 Mixer nonlinearities 617
13.4 Frequency multipliers 625
Bibliography 630
Related files 630
14 Microwave circuit technology 633
14.1 Introduction 633
14.2 Hybrid and monolithic integrated circuits 633
14.2.1 High-frequency PCB 634
14.2.2 Hybrid MICs 635
14.2.3 MMICs 636
14.2.4 Advanced hybrid MICs 637
14.2.5 Parasitic elements associated to physical devices 637
14.3 Basic MMIC elements 639
14.3.1 Transmission lines 640
14.3.2 Via holes 640
14.3.3 Resistors 641
14.3.4 Inductors 643
14.3.5 Capacitors 645
14.3.6 Semiconductor devices 646
14.4 Simulation models and layout libraries 649
14.4.1 Single element models 650
14.4.2 Scalable models 650
14.4.3 Nonlinear models 651
14.4.4 MMIC statistical models 651
14.4.5 Temperature-dependent models 652
14.5 MMIC production technique 652
14.5.1 Lithography 653
14.5.2 On-wafer testing 655
14.5.3 Cut and selection 655
14.6 RFIC 656
Bibliography 657
15 RF and microwave architectures 659
15.1 Introduction 659
15.2 Review of modulation theory 659
15.2.1 Amplitude modulation 660
15.2.2 Angular modulation 663
15.3 Transmitters 665
15.3.1 Direct modulation transmitters 665
15.3.2 Polar modulator 675
15.3.3 Cartesian modulator 677
15.3.4 Transmitters with frequency translation 681
15.4 Receivers 682
15.4.1 RF tuned receivers 682
15.4.2 Superetherodyne receivers 692
15.4.3 Zero-IF and low-IF receivers 696
15.4.4 Walking IF receivers 699
15.4.5 One practical IC-based receiver 701
15.4.6 Digital receivers 703
15.5 Further concepts on RF transmitters and receivers 710
15.5.1 Transceivers 710
15.5.2 CAD analysis of a radar transmitting subassembly 719
15.5.3 Receiver performance analysis 725
15.6 Special radio functional blocks 731
15.6.1 Quadrature signal generation 731
15.6.2 PLL 735
15.6.3 ALC and AGC 744
15.6.4 SDLVA 749
Bibliography 753
Related files 754
16 Numerical methods and CAD 757
16.1 Introduction 757
16.2 EM analysis 760
16.2.1 The method of moments 761
16.2.2 The finite difference method 763
16.2.3 The FDTD method 766
16.2.4 The finite element method 770
16.2.5 The mode matching method 771
16.3 Circuit analysis 780
16.3.1 Linear analysis: the signal flow graph and the admittance matrix methods 780
16.3.2 Time domain nonlinear analysis 785
16.3.3 Frequency domain nonlinear analysis 786
16.4 Optimization 788
16.4.1 Definitions and basic concepts 789
16.4.2 Objective function 790
16.4.3 Constraints 791
16.4.4 Optimization methods 791
Bibliography 792
17 Measurement instrumentation and techniques 795
17.1 Introduction 795
17.2 Power meters 795
17.3 Frequency meters 798
17.3.1 RF digital frequency meter 798
17.3.2 Microwave digital frequency meter 799
17.3.3 Frequency conversion frequency meters 800
17.3.4 Frequency conversion frequency meter without preselector 802
17.4 Spectrum analyzers 803
17.4.1 Panoramic receiver 803
17.4.2 Superheterodyne spectrum analyzer 806
17.5 Wide-band sampling oscilloscopes 809
17.6 Network analyzers 816
17.6.1 Scalar analyzers 817
17.6.2 Vector analyzers 821
17.6.3 Noise figure meters 833
17.7 Special test instruments 837
17.7.1 IFM 837
17.7.2 Complex test benches 843
17.7.3 Test instruments for non-electrical quantities 846
Bibliography 849
Related files 849
Appendix A Useful relations from vector analysis and trigonometric function identities 851
Appendix B Fourier transform 861
Appendix C Orthogonality of the eigenvectors in ideal waveguides 865
Appendix D Standard rectangular waveguides and coaxial cables 869
Appendix E Symbols for electric diagrams 873
Appendix F List of acronyms 877
Index 883
Roberto Sorrentino, University of Perugia, Italy
Giovanni Bianchi, Verigy Ltd, Böblingen, Germany
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