Table of Contents

1 An Introduction to Chemistry 1


1.1 The Nature of Chemistry 2


Thinking Like a Chemist 2


1.2 A Scientific Approach to Problem Solving 3


Chemistry in action


Egyptians, the First Medicinal Chemists 4


The Scientific Method 4


1.3 The Particulate Nature of Matter 5


Physical States of Matter 6


1.4 Classifying Matter 7


Distinguishing Mixtures from Pure Substances 8


Review 9


Review Questions 10


Paired Exercises, Additional Exercises 11


Answers to Practice Exercises 12


2 Standards for Measurement 13


2.1 Scientific Notation 14


2.2 Measurement and Uncertainty 15


2.3 Significant Figures 16


Rounding Off Numbers 17


2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 18


Multiplication or Division 18


Addition or Subtraction 19


2.5 The Metric System 21


Measurement of Length 22


Unit Conversions 23


Measurement of Mass 24


Chemistry in action


Keeping Track of Units 25


Measurement of Volume 26


2.6 Dimensional Analysis: A Problem-Solving Method 27


2.7 Measurement of Temperature 30


Chemistry in action


Setting Standards 32


Chemistry in action


Taking the Temperature of Old Faithful 33


2.8 Density 34


Review 37


Review Questions 38


Paired Exercises 39


Additional Exercises 41


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 43


3 Elements and Compounds 44


3.1 Elements 45


Natural States of the Elements 45


Distribution of Elements 46


Names of the Elements 47


Symbols of the Elements 47


Chemistry in action


Naming Elements 48


3.2 Introduction to the Periodic Table 49


Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 50


Diatomic Elements 51


Chemistry in action


Atomic Oxygen, Friend or Foe? 52


3.3 Compounds and Formulas 52


Molecular and Ionic Compounds 52


Writing Formulas of Compounds 54


Composition of Compounds 55


Review 57


Review Questions 58


Paired Exercises 59


Additional Exercises 60


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 61


4 Properties of Matter 62


4.1 Properties of Substances 63


Chemistry in action


Making Money 64


4.2 Physical and Chemical Changes 65


4.3 Learning to Solve Problems 68


4.4 Energy 68


Energy in Chemical Changes 69


Conservation of Energy 70


4.5 Heat: Quantitative Measurement 70


4.6 Energy in the Real World 72


Chemistry in action


Popping Popcorn 73


Review 74


Review Questions 75


Paired Exercises 76


Additional Exercises 77


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 78


PUTTING IT TOGETHER


CHAPTERS 1–4 REVIEW 79


5 Early Atomic Theory and Structure 82


5.1 Dalton’s Model of the Atom 83


5.2 Electric Charge 84


Discovery of Ions 84


5.3 Subatomic Parts of the Atom 85


5.4 The Nuclear Atom 87


General Arrangement of Subatomic Particles 88


Atomic Numbers of the Elements 89


5.5 Isotopes of the Elements 89


Chemistry in action


Isotope Detectives 91


5.6 Atomic Mass 92


Review 93


Review Questions 94


Paired Exercises 95


Additional Exercises 96


Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 97


6 Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds 98


6.1 Common and Systematic Names 99


6.2 Elements and Ions 100


Chemistry in action


What’s in a Name? 101


6.3 Writing Formulas from Names of Ionic Compounds 103


6.4 Naming Binary Compounds 105


Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal Forming Only One Type of Cation 105


Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Can Form Two or More Types of Cations 106


Binary Compounds Containing Two Nonmetals 108


6.5 Naming Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 109


6.6 Acids 111


Binary Acids 111


Naming Oxy-Acids 112


Review 114


Review Questions 115


Paired Exercises 116


Additional Exercises 117


Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 118


PUTTING IT TOGETHER


CHAPTERS 5–6 review 119


7 Quantitative Composition of Compounds 121


7.1 The Mole 122


7.2 Molar Mass of Compounds 126


7.3 Percent Composition of Compounds 129


Percent Composition from Formula 130


Chemistry in action


Vanishing Coins? 132


7.4 Calculating Empirical Formulas 133


7.5 Calculating the Molecular Formula from the Empirical Formula 135


Review 138


Review Questions, Paired Exercises 139


Additional Exercises 141


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 142


8 Chemical Equations 143


8.1 The Chemical Equation 144


Conservation of Mass 145


8.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 145


Information in a Chemical Equation 149


8.3 Types of Chemical Equations 150


Combination Reaction 150


Chemistry in Action


CO Poisoning—A Silent Killer 151


Decomposition Reaction 151


Single-Displacement Reaction 152


Double-Displacement Reaction 153


8.4 Heat in Chemical Reactions 156


8.5 Global Warming: The Greenhouse Effect 159


Chemistry in action


Decreasing Carbon Footprints 160


Review 161


Review Questions, Paired Exercises 163


Additional Exercises 165


Challenge Exercise, Answers to Practice Exercises 166


9 Calculations from Chemical Equations 167


9.1 Introduction to Stoichiometry 168


A Short Review 168


9.2 Mole–Mole Calculations 170


9.3 Mole–Mass Calculations 173


9.4 Mass–Mass Calculations 174


9.5 Limiting Reactant and Yield Calculations 176


Chemistry in action


A Shrinking Technology 177


Review 182


Review Questions, Paired Exercises 183


Additional Exercises 185


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 187


PUTTING IT TOGETHER


CHAPTERS 7–9 review 188


10 Modern Atomic Theory and the Periodic Table 191


10.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 192


Electromagnetic Radiation 192


Chemistry in action


You Light Up My Life 193


10.2 The Bohr Atom 193


10.3 Energy Levels of Electrons 195


Chemistry in action


Atomic Clocks 197


10.4 Atomic Structures of the First 18 Elements 198


10.5 Electron Structures and the Periodic Table 201


Chemistry in action

Collecting the Elements 202


Review 206


Review Questions 207


Paired Exercises 208


Additional Exercises 210


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 211


11 Chemical Bonds: The Formation of Compounds from Atoms 212


11.1 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 213


Metals and Nonmetals 213


Atomic Radius 214


Ionization Energy 214


11.2 Lewis Structures of Atoms 216


11.3 The Ionic Bond: Transfer of Electrons from One Atom to Another 217


11.4 Predicting Formulas of Ionic Compounds 222


11.5 The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons 224


11.6 Electronegativity 226


Chemistry in Action


Trans-forming Fats 228


11.7 Lewis Structures of Compounds 229


Chemistry in Action


Strong Enough to Stop a Bullet? 232


11.8 Complex Lewis Structures 232


11.9 Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 234


Chemistry in Action


Chemistry or Art? 235


11.10 Molecular Shape 235


The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model 235


Review 239


Review Questions 240


Paired Exercises 241


Additional Exercises 243


Challenge Exercises 244


Answers to Practice Exercises 245


PUTTING IT TOGETHER


CHAPTERS 10–11 review 246


12 The Gaseous State of Matter 248


12.1 Properties of Gases 249


Measuring the Pressure of a Gas 249


Pressure Dependence on the Number of Molecules and the Temperature 251


Chemistry in action


What the Nose Knows 252


12.2 Boyle’s Law 252


12.3 Charles’ Law 256


12.4 Avogadro’s Law 259


12.5 Combined Gas Laws 260


Mole–Mass–Volume Relationships of Gases 262


12.6 Ideal Gas Law 264


The Kinetic-Molecular Theory 266


Real Gases 266


Chemistry in action


Air Quality 267


12.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 267


Chemistry in action


Getting High to Lose Weight? 268


12.8 Density of Gases 270


12.9 Gas Stoichiometry 270


Mole–Volume and Mass–Volume Calculations 270


Volume–Volume Calculations 272


Review 274


Review Questions 276


Paired Exercises 277


Additional Exercises 279


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 281


13 Liquids 282


13.1 States of Matter: A Review 283


13.2 Properties of Liquids 283


Surface Tension 283


Evaporation 284


Vapor Pressure 285


13.3 Boiling Point and Melting Point 286


Chemistry in Action


Chemical Eye Candy 288


13.4 Changes of State 288


13.5 Intermolecular Forces 290


Dipole–Dipole Attractions 290


The Hydrogen Bond 291


Chemistry in Action


How Sweet It Is! 293


London Dispersion Forces 294


13.6 Hydrates 295


13.7 Water, a Unique Liquid 297


Physical Properties of Water 297


Chemistry in Action


Reverse Osmosis? 298


Structure of the Water Molecule 298


Sources of Water for a Thirsty World 299


Review 300


Review Questions 301


Paired Exercises 302


Additional Exercises 303


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 304


14 Solutions 305


14.1 General Properties of Solutions 306


14.2 Solubility 307


The Nature of the Solute and Solvent 308


The Effect of Temperature on Solubility 309


The Effect of Pressure on Solubility 310


Saturated, Unsaturated, and Supersaturated Solutions 310


14.3 Rate of Dissolving Solids 311


14.4 Concentration of Solutions 312


Dilute and Concentrated Solutions 313


Mass Percent Solution 313


Mass/Volume Percent (m/v) 315


Volume Percent 315


Molarity 315


Dilution Problems 319


14.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions 320


Chemistry in action


The Scoop on Ice Cream 324


14.6 Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 325


Review 327


Review Questions 328


Paired Exercises 329


Additional Exercises 332


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 333


PUTTING IT TOGETHER


CHAPTERS 12–14 review 334


15 Acids, Bases, and Salts 337


15.1 Acids and Bases 338


Chemistry in action


Drug Delivery: An Acid–Base Problem 341


15.2 Reactions of Acids and Bases 342


Acid Reactions 342


Base Reactions 343


15.3 Salts 343


Chemistry in action


A Cool Fizz 344


15.4 Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes 344


Dissociation and Ionization of Electrolytes 345


Strong and Weak Electrolytes 346


Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 348


Ionization of Water 348


15.5 Introduction to pH 349


Chemistry in action


Ocean Corals Threatened by Increasing Atmospheric CO2 Levels 351


15.6 Neutralization 352


15.7 Writing Net Ionic Equations 354


15.8 Acid Rain 356


Review 357


Review Questions, Paired Exercises 359


Additional Exercises 361


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 362


16 Chemical Equilibrium 363


16.1 Rates of Reaction 364


16.2 Chemical Equilibrium 365


Reversible Reactions 365


16.3 Le Châtelier’s Principle 366


Chemistry in Action


New Ways in Fighting Cavities and Avoiding the Drill 367


Effect of Concentration on Equilibrium 368


Effect of Volume on Equilibrium 370


Effect of Temperature on Equilibrium 371


Effect of Catalysts on Equilibrium 372


16.4 Equilibrium Constants 373


16.5 Ion Product Constant for Water 374


16.6 Ionization Constants 376


16.7 Solubility Product Constant 378


16.8 Buffer Solutions: The Control of pH 381


Chemistry in Action


Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in the Blood 382


Review 383


Review Questions 384


Paired Exercises 385


Additional Exercises 387


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 389


17 Oxidation–Reduction 390


17.1 Oxidation Number 391


Oxidation–Reduction 393


17.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 395


17.3 Balancing Ionic Redox Equations 398


Chemistry in Action


Sensitive Sunglasses 400


17.4 Activity Series of Metals 401


17.5 Electrolytic and Voltaic Cells 403


Chemistry in Action


Superbattery Uses Hungry Iron Ions 407


Review 407


Review Questions 409


Paired Exercises 410


Additional Exercises 412


Challenge Exercises, Answers to Practice Exercises 413


PUTTING IT TOGETHER


CHAPTERS15–17 review 414


APPENDICES


I. Mathematical and Review A-1


II. Using a Scientific Calculator A-10


III. Units of Measurement A-14


IV. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-15


V. Solubility Table A-16


VI. Answers to Selected Exercises A-17


VII. Answers to Putting It Together Review


Exercises A-27


GLOSARY G-1


INDEX I-1

About the Author

Morris Hein is the author of Foundations of College Chemistry, Alternate 14th Edition, published by Wiley.


Susan Arena is the author of Foundations of College Chemistry, Alternate 14th Edition, published by Wiley.