Table of Contents

Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change 1 Keys to the Study of Chemistry 1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions The Properties of Matter The Three States of Matter The Central Theme in Chemistry The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter 1.2 Chemical Arts and the Origins of Modern Chemistry Prechemical Traditions The Phlogiston Fiasco and the Impact of Lavoisier 1.3 The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model 1.4 Chemical Problem Solving Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems 1.5 Measurement in Scientific Study General Features of SI Units Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 1.6 Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures Determining Which Digits Are Significant Working with Significant Figures in Calculations Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration Chapter Perspective Chemical Connections to Interdisciplinary Science:Chemistry Problem Solving in the Real World For Review and Reference Problems 2The Components of Matter 2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview 2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory Postulates of the Atomic Theory How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws The Relative Masses of Atoms 2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 2.5 The Atomic Theory Today Structure of the Atom Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements Tools of the Laboratory: Mass Spectrometry A Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory 2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding The Formation of Ionic Compounds The Formation of Covalent Compounds The Elements of Life 2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses Types of Chemical Formulas Some Advice about Learning Names and Formulas Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds An Introduction to Naming Organic Compounds Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas Gallery: Picturing Molecules 2.9 Mixtures: Classification and Separation Tools of the Laboratory: Basic Separation Techniques Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 3 Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 3.1 The Mole Defining the Mole Molar MassInterconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities Mass Percent from the Chemical Formula 3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound Empirical Formulas Molecular Formulas Chemical Formulas and Molecular Structures 3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 3.4 Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the Balanced Equation Chemical Reactions That Occur in a Sequence Chemical Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant Chemical Reactions in Practice: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yields 3.5 Fundamentals of Solution Stoichiometry Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity Mole-Mass-Number Conversions Involving Solutions Preparing and Diluting Molar Solutions Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions in Solution Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 4 The Major Classes of Chemical Reactions 4.1 The Role of Water as a Solvent The Polar Nature of Water Ionic Compounds in Water Covalent Compounds in Water 4.2 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions 4.3 Precipitation Reactions The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from Dissolved Ions Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form 4.4 Acid-Base Reactions The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H+ and OH– Acid-Base Titrations Proton Transfer: A Closer Look at Acid-Base Reactions 4.5 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions The Key Event: Movement of Electrons Between Reactants Some Essential Redox Terminology Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor the Movement of Electron Charge Balancing Redox Equations Redox Titrations 4.6 Elements in Redox Reactions 4.7 Reversible Reactions: An Introduction to Chemical Equilibrium Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 5 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 5.1 An Overview of the Physical States of Matter 5.2 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement Laboratory Devices for Measuring Gas Pressure Units of Pressure 5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: Boyle’s Law The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law The Relationship Between Volume and Amount: Avogardro’s Law Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions The Ideal Gas Solving Gas Law Problems 5.4 Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law The Density of a Gas The Molar Mass of a Gas The Partial Pressure of a Gas in a Mixture of Gases 5.5 The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 5.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws Effusion and Diffusion The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free Path and Collision Frequency Chemical Connections to Planetary Science: Structure and Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere 5.7 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 6 Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 6.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion The System and Its Surroundings Energy Flow to and from a System Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer The Law of Energy Conservation Units of Energy State Functions and the Path Independence of the Energy Change 6.2 Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change The Meaning of Enthalpy Comparing ∆E and ∆H Exothermic and Endothermic Processes Some Important Types of Enthalpy Change 6.3 Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction Specific Heat Capacity The Practice of Calorimetry 6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 6.5 Hess’s Law of Heat Summation 6.6 Standard Heats of Reaction (∆Hrxn0) Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy Changes Determining ∆Hrxn0 from ∆Hf0 Values of Reactants and Products Chemical Connections to Environmental Science: The Future of Energy Use Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 7 Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 7.1 The Nature of Light The Wave Nature of Light The Particle Nature of Light 7.2 Atomic Spectra The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom Limitations of the Bohr Model The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom Tools of the Laboratory: Spectrophotometry in Chemical Analysis 7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle Nature of Photons The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 7.4 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom The Atomic Orbital and the Probable Location of the Electron Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital Shapes of Atomic Orbitals Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 8 Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 8.1 Development of the Periodic Table 8.2 Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms The Electron-Spin Quantum Number The Exclusion Principle Electrostatic Effects and the Energy-Level Splitting 8.3 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table Building Up Periods 1 and 2 Building Up Period 3 Electron Configurations Within Groups The First d-Orbital Transition Series: Building Up Period 4 General Principles of Electron Configurations Unusual Configurations: Transition and Inner Transition Elements 8.4 Trends in Three Key Atomic Properties Trends in Atomic Size Trends in Ionization Energy Trends in Electron Affinity 8.5 Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity Trends in Metallic Behavior Properties of Monatomic Ions Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 9Models of Chemical Bonding 9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds The Three Types of Chemical Bonding Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols: Depicting Atoms in Chemical Bonding 9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model Energy Considerations in Ionic Bonding: The Importance of Lattice Energy Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy H ow the Model Explains the Properties of Ionic Compounds 9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model The Formation of a Covalent Bond Properties of a Covalent Bond: Bond Energy and Bond Length How the Model Explains the Properties of Covalent Compounds Tools of the Laboratory: Infrared Spectroscopy 9.4 Bond Energy and Chemical Change Changes in Bond Strength: Where Does ∆Hrxn0 Come From? Using Bond Energies to Calculate ∆Hrxn0 Relative Bond Strengths in Fuels and Foods 9.5 Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Electronegativity Polar Covalent Bonds and Bond Polarity The Partial Ionic Character of Polar Covalent Bonds The Continuum of Bonding Across a Period 9.6 An Introduction to Metallic Bonding The Electron-Sea Model How the Model Explains the Properties of Metals Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 10The Shapes of Molecules 10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures Resonance: Delocalized Electron-Pair Bonding Formal Charge: Selecting the Most Important (?) Resonance Structure Lewis Structures for Exceptions to the Octet Rule 10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory and Molecular Shape Electron-Group Arrangements and Molecular Shapes The Molecular Shape with Two Electron Groups (Linear Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Three Electron Groups (Trigonal Planar Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Four Electron Groups (Tetrahedral Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Five Electron Groups (Trigonal Bipyramidal Arrangement) Molecular Shapes with Six Electron Groups (Octahedral Arrangement) Using VSEPR Theory to Determine Molecular Shape Molecular Shapes with More Than One Central Atom Gallery: Molecular Beauty: Odd Shapes with Useful Functions 10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity Bond Polarity, Bond Angle, and Dipole Moment The Effect of Molecular Polarity on Behavior Chapter Perspective Chemical Connections in Sensory Physiology: Molecular Shape, Biological Receptors, and the Sense of Smell For Review and Reference Problems 11Theories of Covalent Bonding 11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization The Central Themes of VB Theory Types of Hybrid Orbitals 11.2 The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types of Covalent Bonds Orbital Overlap in Single and Multiple Bonds Orbital Overlap and Molecular Rotation 11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and Electron Delocalization The Central Themes of MO Theory Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules of the Period 2 Elements MO Description of Some Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules MO Descriptions of Ozone and Benzene Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 12 Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes 12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes A Kinetic-Molecular View of the Three States Types of Phase Changes 12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes Heat Involved in Phase Changes: A Kinetic-Molecular Approach The Equilibrium Nature of Phase Changes Phase Diagrams: Effect of Pressure and Temperature on Physical State 12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces Ion-Dipole Forces Dipole-Dipole Forces The Hydrogen Bond Polarizability and Charge-Induced Dipole Forces Dispersion (London) Forces 12.4 Properties of the Liquid State Surface Tension Capillarity Viscosity 12.5 The Uniqueness of Water Gallery: Properties of Liquids Solvent Properties of Water Thermal Properties of Water Surface Properties of Water The Density of Solid and Liquid Water 12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding Structural Features of Solids Tools of the Laboratory: X-Ray Diffraction Analysis and Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Types and Properties of Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids Bonding in Solids: Molecular Orbital Band Theory 12.7 Advanced Materials Electronic Materials Liquid Crystals Ceramic Materials Polymeric Materials Nanotechnology: Designing Materials Atom by Atom Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 13The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids 13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Predicting Solubility Intermolecular Forces in Solution Liquid Solutions and the Role of Molecular Polarity Gas Solutions and Solid Solutions 13.2 Intermolecular Forces and Biological Macromolecules The Structure of Proteins The Structure of the Cell Membrane (?) The Structure of DNA The Structure of Cellulose 13.3 Energy Changes in the Solution Process Heats of Solution and Solution Cycles Heats of Hydration: Ionic Solids in Water The Solution Process and the Change in Entropy 13.4 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process Effect of Temperature on Solubility Effect of Pressure on Solubility 13.5 Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration Molarity and Molality Parts of Solute by Parts of Solution Converting Units of Concentration 13.6 Colligative Properties of Solutions Colligative Properties of Nonvolatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions Gallery: Colligative Properties in Industry and Biology Using Colligative Properties to Find Solute Molar Mass Colligative Properties of Volatile Nonelectrolyte Solutions Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 13.7 The Structure and Properties of Colloids Chemical Connections in Sanitary Engineering: Solutions and Colloids in Water Purification Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems Interchapter: A Perspective on the Properties of the Elements Topic 1The Key Atomic Properties Topic 2Characteristics of Chemical Bonding Topic 3Metallic Behavior Topic 4Acid-Base Behavior of the Element Oxides Topic 5Redox Behavior of the Elements Topic 6Physical States and Changes of State 14Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements: Bonding, Structure, and Reactivity 14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom Where Does Hydrogen Fit in the Periodic Table? Highlights of Hydrogen Chemistry 14.2 Trends Across the Periodic Table: The Period 2 Elements 14.3 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals Why Are the Alkakli Metals Soft, Low Melting, and Lightweight? Why Are the Alkali Metals So Reactive? The Anomalous Behavior of Lithium 14.4 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals How Do the Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare? How Do the Chemical Properties of the Alkaline Earth and Alkali Metals Compare? The Anomalous Behavior of Beryllium Diagonal Relationships: Lithium and Magnesium Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 1A(1), 2A(2), and 3A(13) 14.5 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family How Do the Transition Elements Influence Group 3A(13) Properties? What New Features Appear in the Chemical Properties of Group 3A(13)? Highlights of Boron Chemistry Diagonal Relationships: Beryllium and Aluminum 14.6 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family How Does the Bonding in an Element Affect Physical Properties? How Does the Type of Bonding Change in Group 4A(14) Compounds? Highlights of Carbon Chemistry Highlights of Silicon Chemistry Diagonal Relationships: Boron and Silicon Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 3A(13), 4A(14), and 5A(15) Gallery: Silicate Minerals and Silicone Polymers 14.7 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family What Accounts for the Wide Range of Physical Behavior in Group 5A(15)? What Patterns Appear in the Chemical Behavior of Group 5A(15)? Highlights of Nitrogen Chemistry Highlights of Phosphorus Chemistry: Oxides and Oxoacids 14.8 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Physically? How Do the Oxygen and Nitrogen Families Compare Chemically? Highlights of Oxygen Chemistry: Range of Oxide Properties Highlights of Sulfur Chemistry: Oxides, Oxoacids, and Sulfides Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 5A(15), 6A(16), and 7A(17) 14.9 Group 7A(17): The Halogens What Accounts for the Regular Changes in the Halogens’ Physical Properties? Why Are the Halogens So Reactive? Highlights of Halogen Chemistry 14.10 Group 8A(18): The Noble Gases How Can Noble Gases Form Compounds? Looking Backward and Forward: Groups 7A(17), 8A(18), and 1A(1) Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 15Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon 15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules The Structural Comp lexity of Organic Molecules The Chemical Diversity of Organic Molecules 15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons Carbon Skeletons and Hydrogen Skins Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with Only Single Bonds Constitutional Isomerism and the Physical Properties of Alkanes Chiral Molecules and Optical Isomerism Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with Double Bonds Chemical Connections to Sensory Physiology: Geometric Isomers and the Chemistry of Vision Alkynes: Hydrocarbons with Triple Bonds Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Cyclic Molecules with Delocalized π Electrons Variations on a Theme: Catenated Inorganic Hydrides Tools of the Laboratory: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy 15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions Types of Organic Reactions The Redox Process in Organic Reactions 15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups Functional Groups with Only Single Bonds [?] Functional Groups with Double Bonds Functional Groups with Single and Double Bonds Functional Groups with Triple Bonds 15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules Addition Polymers Condensation Polymers 15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules Sugars and Polysaccharides Amino Acids and Proteins Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Chapter Perspective Chemical Connections to Genetics: DNA Sequencing and the Human Genome Project For Review and Reference Problems 16Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions 16.1 Factors That Influence Reaction Rate 16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate 16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components Tools of the Laboratory: Measuring Reaction Rates Determining the Initial Rate Reaction Order Terminology Determining Reaction Orders Determining the Rate Constant 16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time Integrated Rate Laws for First-, Second-, and Zero-Order Reactions Determining the Reaction Order from the Integrated Rate Law Reaction Half-Life 16.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate 16.6 Explaining the Effects of Concentration and Temperature Collision Theory: Basis of the Rate Law Transition State Theory: Molecular Nature of the Activated Complex 16.7 Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction Elementary Reactions and Molecularity The Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction Mechanism Correlating the Mechanism with the Rate Law 16.8 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction Homogeneous Catalysis Heterogeneous Catalysis Chemical Connections to Enzymology: Kinetics and Function of Biological Catalysts Chemical Connections to Atmospheric Science: Depletion of the Earth’s Ozone Layer Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 7Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions 17.1 The Dynamic Nature of the Equilibrium State 17.2 The Reaction Quotient and the Equilibrium Constant Writing the Reaction Quotient Variations in the Form of the Reaction Quotient 17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp 17.4 Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K 17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems Using Quantities to Determine the Equilibrium Constant Using the Equilibrium Constant to Determine Quantities Mixtures of Reactants and Products: Determining Reaction Direction 17.6 Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State: Le Châtelier’s Principle The Effect of a Change in Concentration The Effect of a Change in Pressure (Volume) The Effect of a Change in Temperature The Lack of Effect of a Catalyst Chemical Connections to Cellular Metabolism: Design and Control of a Metabolic Pathway Chemical Connections to Industrial Production: The Haber Process for the Synthesis of Ammonia Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 18Acid-Base Equilibria 18.1 Acids and Bases in Water Release of H+ or OH– and the Classical Acid-Base Definition Variation in Acid Strength: The Acid-Dissociation Constant (Ka) Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 18.2 Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale The Equilibrium Nature of Autoionization: The Ion-Product Constant for Water (Kw) Expressing the Hydronium Ion Concentration: The pH Scale 18.3 Proton Transfer and the Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition The Conjugate Acid-Base PairRelative Acid-Base Strength and the Net Direction of Reaction 18.4 Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria Finding Ka Given a Concentration Finding Concentration Given Ka The Effect of Concentration on the Extent of Acid Dissociation The Behavior of Polyprotic Acids 18.5 Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids Molecules as Weak Bases: Ammonia and the Amines Anions of Weak Acids as Weak Bases The Relation Between Ka and Kb of a Conjugate Acid-Base Pair 18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid Strength Trends in Acid Strength of Nonmetal Hydrides Trends in Acid Strength of Oxoacids Acidity of Hydrated Metal Ions 18.7 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions Salts That Yield Neutral Solutions Salts That Yield Acidic Solutions Salts That Yield Basic Solutions Salts of Weakly Acidic Cations and Weakly Basic Anions 18.8 Generalizing the Brønsted-Lowry Concept: The Leveling Effect 18.9 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition Molecules as Lewis Acids Metal Cations as Lewis Acids An Overview of Acid-Base Definitions Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 19Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems 19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems How a Buffer Works: The Common-Ion Effect The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation Buffer Capacity and Buffer Range Preparing a Buffer 19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves Monitoring pH with Acid-Base Indicators Strong Acid–Strong Base Titration Curves Weak Acid–Strong Base Titration Curves Weak Base–Strong Acid Titration Curves Titration Curves for Polyprotic Acids Amino Acids as Biological Polyprotic Acids 19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds The Ion-Product Expression (Qsp) and the Solubility-Product Constant (Ksp) Calculations Involving the Solubility-Product Constant The Effect of a Common Ion on Soubility The Effect of pH on Solubility Chemical Connections to Geology: Creation of a Limestone Cave Predicting the Formation of a Precipitate: Qsp vs. Ksp Chemical Connections to Environmental Science: The Acid-Rain Problem 19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions Formation of Complex Ions Complex Ions and the Solubility of Precipitates Complex Ions of Amphoteric Hydroxides 19.5 Ionic Equilibria in Chemical Analysis Selective Precipitation Qualitative Analysis: Identifying Ions in Complex Mixtures Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 20Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions 20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Predicting Spontaneous Change Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics The Sign of ∆H Cannot Predict Spontaneous Change Freedom of Motion and Dispersal of Energy Entropy and the Number of Microstates Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Standard Molar Entropies and the Third Law 20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction Entropy Changes in the System: Standard Entropy of Reaction (∆Srxn0) Entropy Changes in the Surroundings: The Other Part of the Total The Entropy Change and the Equilibrium State Chemical Connections to Biology: Do Living Things Obey the Laws of Thermodynamics? Spontaneous Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions: A Summary 20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work Free Energy Change and Reaction Spontaneity Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes ∆G and the Work a System Can Do The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Spontaneity Coupling of Reactions to Drive a Nonspontaneous Change Chemical Connections to Biological Energetics: The Universal Role of ATP 20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction Chapter Perspective For Review and Reference Problems 21Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work 21.1 Half-Reactions and Electrochemical Cells A Quick Review of Oxidation-Reduction Concepts Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Reactions An Overview of Electrochemical Cells 21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy Construction and Operation of a Voltaic Cell Notation for a Voltaic Cell Why Does a Voltaic Cell Work? 21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell Standard Cell Potentials Relative Strengths o f Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work Standard Cell Potential and the Equilibrium Constant The Effect of Concentration on Cell Potential Changes in Potential During Cell Operation Concentration Cells 21.5 Electrochemical Processes in Batteries Primary (Nonrechargeable) Batteries Secondary (Rechargeable) Batteries Fuel Cells 21.6 Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry The Corrosion of IronProtecting Against the Corrosion of Iron 21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous Reactions Construction and Operation of an Electroly

About the Author

Martin S. Silberberg received his B.S. in chemistry from the City University of New York in 1966 and his Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Oklahoma, in 1971.  He then accepted a research position at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, where he studied the chemical nature of neurotransmission and Parkinson's disease.  In 1977, Dr. Silberberg joined the faculty of Simon's Rock College of Bard (Massachusetts), a liberal arts college known for its excellence in teaching small classes of highly motivated students.  As Head of the Natural Sciences Major and Director of Premedical Studies, he taught courses in general chemistry, organic chemistry, biochemistry, and nonmajors chemistry.  The close student contact afforded him insights into how students learn chemistry, where they have difficulties, and what strategies can help them succeed.  In 1983, Dr. Silberberg decided to apply these insights in a broader context and established a text writing and editing company.  Before writing his own text, he worked on chemistry, biochemistry, and physics texts for several major college publishers.  He resides with his wife and child in Massachusetts.  For relaxation, he cooks, sings, and walks in the woods.