Preface xi
Chapter 1 The Fossil Record 1
Changing Ideas about the Changing Earth 1
Neptune vs. Vulcan 3
A Brief Guide to Sedimentology 4
Dating the Rocks 5
The Succession of Faunas 7
Radiation-Based Dating Techniques 9
Other Dating Techniques 11
Dating Based on the Cycles of the Earth 11
The Problem of Orogeny 13
Continental Drift 14
Life: The First Three Billion Years 15
Multicellular Life 17
The Cambrian Revolution 18
Jaws, Fins, and Feet 21
The Reptilian Revolutions 23
The Two Great Extinctions 26
The Mammals Take Over 27
Chapter 2 Analyzing Evolution 29
Parsimony and Pigeons 29
Darwin’s Theory 30
Problems with Darwinism 35
The Concept of Species 38
Evidence for Anagenesis and Cladogenesis 40
The Tempo of Speciation 40
Semispecies, Hybrids, and Isolating Mechanisms 43
“Races” 44
Species and Fossils 46
Morphospecies 48
Microevolution and Macroevolution 50
The Politics of Macroevolution 52
Reconstructing the Tree of Life 52
Sources of Error in Phylogenetics 53
Linnaean Classification 58
Evolutionary Systematics 59
Phenetics and Cladistics 60
Pros and Cons of Phylogenetic Systematics 61
Chapter 3 People As Primates 63
Early Mammals 63
Allometry 71
Allometry and Early Mammals 73
Death and Molar Occlusion 73
Allometry, Motherhood, and Milk 74
Respiration and the Palate 76
The Tribosphenic Molar 78
Live Birth and Placentation 80
Cretaceous Mammals 81
The Order Primates 84
The Living Strepsirrhines 89
Anthropoid Apomorphies: Ears, Eyes, and Noses 91
Tarsiers 93
Platyrrhines: The New World Anthropoids 94
Cercopithecoids: The Old World Monkeys 95
Hominoids: The Living Apes 97
Pongids and Hominids 101
Bonobos and Chimpanzees 103
Humans vs. Apes: Skulls and Teeth 104
Primate Origins: The Crown Group 109
Fossil Primates: The Stem Group 111
The First Fossil Euprimates 113
Eocene “Lemurs” and “Tarsiers” 115
The First Anthropoids 117
Anthropoid Radiations 121
Chapter 4 The Bipedal Ape 129
Being Human vs. Becoming Human 129
The Taung Child 130
Australopithecus Grows Up 131
Bipedal Posture and the Vertebral Column 136
Bipedal Posture and the Pelvis 138
Bipedal Locomotion: Knees 142
Bipedal Locomotion: The Hip Joint 145
Bipedal Locomotion: Feet 146
Australopithecus Stands Up 150
The Skull of Australopithecus Africanus 151
Australopithecus robustus 152
Man-Apes, Just Plain Apes, or Weird Apes? 157
Postcranial Peculiarities 157
Louis Leakey and East Africa 158
Olduvai Gorge 160
Sahelanthropus: The Oldest Hominin? 164
Mio-Pliocene Enigmas: Orrorin and Ardipithecus 165
Australopithecus anamensis 168
Australopithecus afarensis 170
Lucy’s Locomotion: The View from Stony Brook 173
Lucy’s Locomotion: The Rebuttal 176
Lucy’s Locomotion: Persistent Questions 176
Australopithecus bahrelghazali? 182
Australopithecus platyops? 183
Australopithecus garhi 183
Australopithecus aethiopicus 185
Australopithecus boisei 187
Fitting in South Africa: The Problem(s) of Sterkfontein 190
Fitting in South Africa: Some robustus Questions 193
The Phylogeny of Australopithecus 195
What Did Australopithecus Eat? 201
Australopithecus and the Ecosystem 205
Two Species or Two Sexes? 207
Hunting, Gathering, and Dimorphism 209
Dinichism: A Possible Synthesis 214
Explaining Hominin Origins 215
Primitive Homo—Or “Advanced” Australopithecus? 217
Dating and Geological Context of the Habilines from Olduvai, Omo, and Koobi Fora 223
Habiline Skulls 224
Habiline Teeth 227
Habiline Postcranial Remains 227
Advanced Australopithecus: The Frustrations of Variation 229
Advanced Australopithecus: Back to South Africa 230
Advanced Australopithecus or Early Homo? Phylogenetic Issues 231
Chapter 5 The Migrating Ape: Homo erectus and Human Evolution 233
The “Muddle in the Middle” 233
A Brief History of Homo erectus: 1889–1950 235
Later Discoveries in Africa and Eurasia 238
Erectine Chronology and Geographic Distribution 240
Cranial Vault Morphology of Homo erectus 243
Cranial Capacity and the Brain 248
Faces and Mandibles of Asian Homo erectus 250
The Erectine Dentition 251
Erectine Postcranial Remains 252
Early African Erectine Skulls and the Ergaster Question 253
Early African Erectine Postcranial Morphology 257
Early Erectine Adaptations: Anatomy and Physiology 261
Early Erectine Adaptations: The Archaeological Evidence 265
Patterns of Development and Evolutionary Change in Erectines 267
Early Erectine Radiations in Africa 268
Out of Africa I: The Erectine Radiation 272
Indonesian Erectines and the Specter of “Meganthropus” 275
Chinese Erectines 278
Dmanisi—Humans at the Periphery of Europe 279
The Initial Occupation of Europe 283
Major Issues: A Summing Up 288
Taxonomy 288
Dates and Additional Evidence 289
Evolutionary Patterns 290
Chapter 6 The Big-Brained Ape: Regional Variation and Evolutionary Trends in the Middle Pleistocene 291
Of “Archaic Homo sapiens” and Homo heidelbergensis 292
Early Models of Later Human Evolution 294
The Recent African Origin Model 297
The Multiregional Evolution Model 299
European Heidelbergs 301
Petralona 302
Bilzingsleben 305
Swanscombe 305
Steinheim 306
Mauer 307
Boxgrove 309
Atapuerca—Sima de los Huesos 309
Other European Heidelbergs 314
African Heidelbergs 316
Kabwe 316
Bodo and Ndutu 318
African Heidelberg Mandibles 319
Other African Heidelbergs 319
North Africans 320
Asian Heidelbergs? 320
Mugharet El-Zuttiyeh 320
Other West Asian Candidates 321
South Asia 321
East Asia 321
Australasia 323
Ngandong 324
Liang Bua 326
Supraorbital Tori, Chins, and Projecting Faces 330
Major Issues: Speciation, Migration, and Regional Continuity 332
Chapter 7 Talking Apes: The Neandertals 337
Neandertals—Early Discoveries and Ideas (1829–1909) 339
Ideas about Neandertals—From Boule to the 21st Century 343
Neandertal Chronology and Distribution 346
Neandertal Morphology—The Cranial Vault 350
Frontal Bones 351
Occipital Bones 356
Temporal Bones 359
Brains 361
Neandertal Faces 361
External Nose 364
Prognathism 365
Internal Nose 366
Neandertal Mandibles 367
Neandertal Dentition 370
Body Size and Proportions 373
Neck and Upper Limb 377
Pelvis and Lower Limb 379
Neandertal Life History 383
Neandertal Genetics 385
Neandertal Technology 388
Diet and Subsistence Behavior 390
Neandertals and Language 391
Symbolic Behavior 395
Early European Neandertals 398
Würm Neandertals from Western Europe 401
Western and Central Asian Neandertals 402
Late Neandertals 406
Major Issues 410
Chapter 8 The Symbolic Ape: The Origin of Modern Humans 413
A “Creative Explosion”? 414
Modern Human Anatomy—The Skull 416
Modern Human Anatomy—Cranial Capacity 420
Modern Human Anatomy—The Postcranial Skeleton 421
The Geochronology of Modern Human Origins 421
The African Transition: Background and Dating 422
The African Transition: Vault Morphology 425
The African Transition: Facial Morphology 427
The African Transition: Additional Bones, Archaeology, and Other Matters 428
East Asian Archaic Humans: Background and Context 429
East Asian Archaic Sites and Specimens 430
Dali 430
Jinniushan 431
Maba 431
Other Cranial Pieces 431
Dentition 432
East Asian Archaics: Continuity or Someone New? 432
Early Modern Humans: The East African Record 432
Out of (East) Africa: Early Modern People in North and South Africa 435
The First Modern People Outside Africa: The Near Eastern Evidence 439
African and Circum-Mediterranean Gene Flow and Modern Human Origins 444
Modern Human Origins in East Asia 447
Modern Human Origins in Australasia 450
Europe: The Last Frontier 458
Recent Human Genetics and Modern Human Origins 465
Ancient DNA in Early Modern Humans 469
Modern Human Origins: The Models vs. the Facts 470
The Recent African Origin Model 471
Alternative Views—Multiregional Evolution 472
Alternative Views—The Assimilation Model 473
Assimilation and Interactions Between Modern and Archaic Humans 476
Appendix: Cranial Measurements 481
Bibliography 487
Index 565
Matt Cartmill is a Professor in the Department of Biological Anthropology and Anatomy at Duke University. His areas of interest include: Bipedal locomotion, Gait analysis, and Origin and differentiation of primates in addition to several other subjects.
Fred H. Smith is a biological antrhopologist with specific interests in human paleontology and functional anatomy. He teaches courses in human paleontology, human osteology, introductory biological anthropology, and the paleolithis prehistory of Europe and Africa.
"The Human Lineage could be used as a sole text, supplemented with journal articles and library sources." ( PaleoAnthropolog y, 2010) "Although paleoanthropology as a field moves rapidly the sheer quality of the writing and explanatory synthesis in this book will undoubtedly make it a valuable resource for students for many years." ( PaleoAnthropology , July 2010)" The Human Lineage excels in providing rich detail and clear explanations for complex issues. This is true of the writing, but is particularly apparent in the 300 or so superb illustrations that detail dozens of fossils as well as anatomical structures and mechanics." ( The Quarterly Review of Biology , March 2010) "Cartmill and Smith have produced a generally excellent work for advanced students." ( CHOICE , October 2009)
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