Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS AKNOWLEDGMENT PREFACE CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background 1.2 Historical synopsis: Canada and the Arctic 1.3 The fascinating nature of sea ice 1.4 Sea ice in research and operational disciplines 1.4.1 Sea ice in marine navigation 1.4.2 Sea ice in physics 1.4.3 Sea ice in climatology 1.4.4 Sea ice in meteorology 1.4.5 Sea ice in oceanography 1.4.6 Sea ice in marine biology 1.4.7 1.4.7 Sea ice and offshore structures 1.4.8 Sea ice for Search & Rescue and transportation 1.5 Sea ice and remote sensing 1.6 About the book and its organization CHAPTER 2: ICE PHYSICS AND PHYSICAL PROCESSES 2.1 Initial Ice Formation 2.1.1 Relevant sea water properties 2.1.2 Sea water freezing mechanism 2.1.3 Initial ice crystals and frazil ice 2.2 Ice Growth 2.2.1 Lateral ice growth 2.2.2 Vertical ice growth 2.2.3 Superimposed ice 2.2.4 Thermodynamic Ice growth 2.2.4.1 Modelling ice growth 2.2.4.2 Effect of Snow cover 2.2.4.3 Effect of oceanic heat flux 2.2.4.4 Effect of ice surface ablation 2.3 Inclusions in Ice 2.3.1 Compositional (constitutional) supercooling and brine pocket formation 2.3.2 Dentritic interface of sea ice 2.3.3 Salinity loss during ice growth 2.3.3.1 Initial rapid salt rejection at the ice-water interface 2.3.3.2 Subsequent slow salt rejection from the bulk ice 2.4 Ice Deformation 2.5 Ice Decay and Aging 2.6 Ice classes and regimes 2.6.1 Criteria of ice classification 2.6.2 Polynyas 2.6.3 Pancake ice regime 2.6.4 Ice edge and marginal ice zone 2.6.5 Ice of land origin CHAPTER 3: SEA ICE PROPERTIES: DATA AND DERIVATIONS 3.1 Temperature profiles in ice and snow 3.2 Bulk salinity and salinity profile 3.3 Density of first-year and multi-year ice 3.4 Volume fraction of sea ice constituents 3.5 Thermal properties 3.5.1 Thermal conductivity of sea ice 3.5.2 Thermal conductivity of snow 3.5.3 Specific heat of sea ice 3.5.4 Latent heat of fusion 3.6 Dielectric properties 3.6.1 Dielectric constant of brine 3.6.2 Dielectric mixing models 3.6.3 Field measurements of dielectric constant CHAPTER 4: POLYCRYSTALLINE ICE STRUCTURE 4.1 Terms and definitions relevant to polycrystalline ice 4.1.1 Special thermal state of natural ice 4.1.2 General terms for structural aspects of ice 4.1.3 Basic terms and definitions 4.2 Morphology of ice 4.2.1 Form of ice crystals 4.2.2 Miller Indices for hexagonal ice 4.2.3 Growth direction of ice crystals 4.2.4 Ice density in relation to crystalline structure 4.3 Structure- and Texture-based Classification of Natural Ice 4.3.1 Fresh-water ice classification of Michel and Ramseier 4.3.2 Extending crystallographic classification of fresh-water ice to sea ice 4.3.3 Crystallographic classes of natural ice 4.3.3.1 Granular or snow ice (T1 ice) 4.3.3.2 Randomly oriented (S4) and vertically oriented (S5) frazil ice 4.3.3.3 Columnar-grained with c-axis vertical (S1 ice) 4.3.3.4 Columnar-grained with c-axis horizontal and random (S2 ice) 4.3.3.5 Columnar-grained ice with c-axis horizontal and oriented (S3 ice) 4.3.3.6 Agglomerate ice with discontinuous columnar-grained (R ice type) 4.3.3.7 Ice of land-based origin 4.3.4 Stereographical projection (fabric diagram) of natural polycrystalline ice 4.4 Age-based structural features of natural sea ice 4.4.1 Young ice, Y (Sikuaq) 4.4.2 First-Year ice, FY (Siku) 4.4.3 Multi-Year ice, MY (Qavvaq) 4.5 Information contents in Polycrystalline Ice Structure 4.5.1 Geometric characteristics of crystalline structure 4.5.2 Geometric characteristics of brine pockets in first-year ice 4.5.3 Geometric characteristics of air bubbles 4.5.4 Biomass accumulation at the bottom of the ice CHAPTER 5: AGING OF SEA ICE: STORIES THAT WERE NEVER TOLD 5. Mould Bay experiments: beginning of RADARSAT field project 5.1.1 Ageing in sea ice: transition from FY to MY ice 5.1.2 Ice conditions and parameters 5.1.3 Interface between Old and New ice in SY ice cover 5.1.4 Multi-year (MY) ice and interfaces: Mould Bay 1984 experience 5. 2 High-Arctic ice islands and microwave remote sensing experience 5.2.1 Background history of ice islands 5.2.2 Shelf ice and Arctic ice islands 5.2.3 Multi-Year rubble field of an Arctic ice island 5.2.4 RADARSAT images of Arctic ice islands CHAPTER 6: LABORATORY TECHNIQUES FOR REVEALING STRUCTURE OF POLYCRYSTALLINE ICE 6.1 Relevant optical properties 6.1.1 Fundamentals of polarized light 6.1.2 Birefringence or double-refraction in ice (Ih) 6.1.3 Optical retardation 6.1.4 Interference colours for white light 6.2 Thin sectioning techniques for ice and snow 6.2.1 Hot- and Cold-plate technique for thin sectioning of ice 6.2.2 Double-microtoming technique (DMT) for thin sectioning of ice 6.2.3 Double-microtoming technique (DMT) for thin sectioning of snow 6.2.4 Precautions for thin sectioning by DMT 6.2.5 Optimum thickness for thin sections of ice and snow 6.3 Viewing and photographing ice thin sections 6.3.1 Laboratory and hand-held polariscope 6.3.2 Cross-polarized versus parallel-polarized light viewing 6.3.3 Scattered light and combined cross-polarized/scattered light viewing 6.3.4 Circularly polarized light and rapid crystallographic analysis 6.4 Etching techniques 6.4.1 Sublimation of ice and sublimation (Higuch)i etch pits 6.4.2 Etching processes and applications 6.4.3 Thermal etching of microtomed ice surfaces 6.4.4 Chemical etching and replicating ice surfaces CHAPTER 7: REMOTE SENSING PRINCIPLES RELEVANT TO SE ICE 7.1 General Principles of satellite remote sensing 7.2 Historical synopsis of satellite remote sensing for sea ice 7.3 Electromagnetic wave properties and processes 7.3.1 Polarization and depolarization of EM wave 7.3.2 Reflection, transmission, absorption, scattering and emission 7.3.3 Brightness temperature and emissivity 7.3.4 Penetration depth 7.4 Optical sensing 7.5 Thermal infrared sensing 7.6 Microwave sensing 7.6.1 Passive microwave 7.6.2 Active microwave 7.6.2.1 Imaging radar principles 7.6.2.2 Multi-channel SAR 7.6.2.3 Radar polarimetry 7.7 Radiative processes in relevant media 7.7.1 Atmospheric influences 7.7.2 Sea water 7.7.3 Snow on sea: physical and radiative processes 7.7.3.1 Optical and thermal infrared regions 7.7.3.2 Microwave region CHAPTER 8: DATA SETS OF RADIATVE MEASUREMENTS AND PROPERTIES 8.1 Radar backscatter 8.1.1 Backscatter databases from ice types and open water 8.1.2 Effect of wind-roughened ocean surface on backscatter 8.1.3 Multi-polarization data of sea ice 8.2 Microwave brightness temperature data 8.3 Visible and Near-Infrared reflectance and albedo 8.4 Emissivity data in the microwave region 8.5 Microwave penetration depth CHAPTER 9: RETRIEVAL OF SEA ICE SURFACE INFORMATION 9.1 Surface deformation 9.2 Cracks and leads 9.3 Surface melt 9.4 Frost flowers CHAPTER 10: RETRIEVAL OF ICE AND SNOW GEOPHYSICAL PARAMETERS 10.1 Ice type classification 10.1.1 Ice classification from optical and TIR systems 10.1.2 Ice classification from Microwave data 10.2 Ice concentration 10.2.1 Ice concentration from VIS and TIR images 10.2.2 Ice concentration from passive microwave observations 10.2.2.1 Description of selected algorithms 10.2.2.2 Sources of error and sensitivity of algorithms 10.2.2.3 Validation of ice concentration algorithms 10.2.2.4 Comparison of passive microwave algorithms 10.2.3 Ice concentration from SAR 10.3 Sea ice extent and area 10.4 Ice thickness 10.5 Ice Surface temperature 10.6 Snow depth over sea ice 10.7 Ice motion CHAPTER 11: SEA ICE SERVICE IN CANADA: HISTORY AND CURRET OPERATIONAL PROGRAM 11.1 History of Ice Service in Canada 11.2 The operational sea ice programs and products

About the Author

Mohammed Elsayed Shokr is a research scientist in Science and Technology Branch at Environment Canada. He is also affiliated with IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and the CASI Canadian Remote Sensing Society (Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute). His research interests include studying sea ice physical and electrical properties which have greater implications in operational monitoring and climate studies. He also uses remote sensing techniques for sea ice modelling.

Nirmal Sinha is an Engineer at the NRC Institute for Aerospace Research in Ottawa, Ontario. His research focuses on high temperature materials, like ceramics and advanced alloys that are used inside jet engines or gas turbine engines. This involves applying theories and experimental techniques about how snow and ice behaves around its melting point, to aerospace materials such as titanium-based and nickel-based 'superalloys'.